CHAPTER TWO: RURAL DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND CONCEPTS
2.5 RURAL DEVELOPMENT: CENTRAL CONCEPTS
2.5.2 Sustainable Development
2.5.2.1 Definition of Sustainable Development
The term ‘sustainable development’ has been widely used by politicians in the past few decades even though there is no uniform definition (Soubbotina, 2004). However, the idea of sustainable development is not as new (Mensah, 2019; Shrestha, 2017).
According to Shrestha (2017), the term originated in 1713 in the first book on forest sciences, edited by Carlowitz. He argued that
“timber should be as important as our daily bread”and that it should be “used with caution in a way, that there is a balance between timber growth and lumbering”. This would allow forever for a continuous, perpetual use. "For this reason, we should organise our economy in a way that we won’t suffer scarcity [of timber], and where it is lumbered; we should strive for young growth at its place” (Carlowitz, 1713, cited in Shrestha, 2017:17).
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Conservation organisations use the term ‘sustainable’ in several contexts. These organisations refer to ‘sustainable development’, as well as ‘sustainable use’. As mentioned, sustainable development is the development or activities concerning the improvement of the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of the earth’s finite resources (Ben-Eli, 2015). It means meeting the needs of the present generation, particularly those of the poor, without jeopardising the ability of future generations to fulfil their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Sustainable use of resources means using natural resources (e.g., forests or woodlands, rivers, lakes and the ocean for food, medicine, firewood and building materials), while remaining within the limits of environmental capacity (Yeld,1997; International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources - IUCN/ World Wide Fund-WWF/ United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-UNESCO, 1991).
According to Mensah (2019), scholars such as Abubakar (2017) and Cerin (2006) acknowledge the pervasiveness of the WCED’s definition, and further, that sustainable development is a core concept within global development policy and agenda. It provides a mechanism through which society can interact with the environment while not risking damage to resources in the future. Thus, it is a development paradigm, as well as a concept, that calls for improving living standards without jeopardising the earth’s ecosystems or causing environmental challenges such as deforestation and water and air pollution that could result in problems such as climate change and the extinction of species (Browning and Rigolon, 2019, cited in Mensah 2019; Benaim and Raftis, 2008).
The most cited definition from the WCED’s report is that “sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own” (WCED, 1987:43).
According to Bolis et al. (2017) sustainable development is concerned with finding ways where human socioeconomic needs are met in harmony with environmental issues. As a concept, the sustainable development framework consists of many different components/dimensions and is usually presented as the interface between
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the environmental, economic, and social components/dimensions, with each having a specific function (EEA Grants, 2006:3):
• The environment is the basis for sustainable development;
• The economy is the tool whereby sustainable development is achieved; and
• A good life for all (i.e., the social component/dimension) is the target of sustainable development.
Environmental sustainability cannot be achieved without taking into consideration the social and economic importance of those who are dependent on the resources.
McCormick (1999) asserts that sustainability integrates economic, environmental, and social values during planning; distributes benefits equitably across socio-economic strata and gender upon implementation; and ensures that opportunities for continuing development remain undiminished to future generations. It is therefore vital to ensure the continued existence of finite resources through the protection of our environment and to ensure the respect of our inherent dignity. McCormick (1999) further argues in support of the above statement that the unborn have a right to life; have a right to an environment capable of sustaining life; and to sustaining it at a level of quality enjoyed by the present generation.
“Any development or growth process which depletes capital (plant, machinery, infrastructure, land, water minerals and human capital - skills, knowledge, health, social organisation, etc.) must eventually slow down” (World Bank, 1989:44).
Therefore, sustainable (economic) growth demands that the future strategy should emphasise both sound environmental management and human resource development. The concept is aimed at “providing fairness and opportunity for everybody, [and] not just the privileged few, [but] without further destroying the nation’s finite resources and without compromising its carrying capacity” (UNDP, 1992:17). The definition can easily be extended to a country (such as South Africa or its component administrative regions), region (Africa, Asia, etc.) or the world. Sustainable development has therefore been appropriately defined as follows:
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“Sustainable development is a process in which economic, fiscal trade, energy, agricultural and industrial policies are all designed to bring about development that is economically, socially and ecologically sustainable (and in which) current consumption cannot be financed by incurring (economic, social and ecological) debts that others must repay in the future” (UNDP, 1992:17).
In order to achieve sustainable development, the UNDP has suggested the following minimum requirements:
• The elimination of poverty,
• A reduction in population growth,
• A more equitable distribution of resources,
• Healthier, more educated and better-trained people,
• A decentralised, more participatory government.
Sustainable development encourages people to take responsibility for their own development and promotes development activities that address the actual needs of the people and require increasing community contributions to development services and infrastructure (UNDP, 1992). Sustainable development, on the part of the government and the citizens, calls for the following:
a) Partnerships (between government, business, communities, NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs), academic institutions, the international community and donors, rural and urban communities, etc.);
b) Capacity enhancement (human and institutional);
c) Good governance, accountability and transparency;
d) Democracy and human rights;
e) Environmental protection;
f) Peace and political stability.
From the above-mentioned definition, it is clear that the purpose of development is to widen the range of all human choices in order to promote human well-being, by : a) increasing the availability of basic life-sustaining goods, such as food, shelter, and
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protection, and extending the space receiving such products; b) raising the standard of living through better jobs, education, etc. and; c) widening the range of economic and social choices offered to individuals by liberating them from servitude and the forces of ignorance and human misery.
In rural areas, especially in the developing countries such as South Africa, it is not easy to avoid environmental degradation. In order to satisfy their daily needs, rural people are often forced to depend on the natural resource base. The challenge that they are confronted with is that the only resource available to them might be from the environment. Most of the time, since they are faced with absolute poverty, it is more difficult for them to protect the environment than to exploit and degrade it (Van Rooyen, 2004). Furthermore, their lack of knowledge and the limited choices available to them may leave people with no choice but to sustain themselves through unsustainable means. This situation impacts on and undermines their livelihoods and in turn, sustainable development. These are the issues that need to be considered when thinking about sustainable development.
2.5.2.2 Sustainable Development: a dimensional view
Sustainable development is often described as a catch phrase, with many contending that it is ambiguous (Mensah, 2019). However, the word that Kates et al. (2005:20) use to describe the concept of sustainable development is ““malleable”, which allows for it to represent “open, dynamic, and evolving conditions”, and, as such, enables it to be adapted to “fit diverse contexts and situations””. In the discussions on sustainability and sustainable development above, the term ‘sustainable development’
includes the notions of making better (development) and maintaining (sustainability).
Associated with the concept of sustainable development is also the urgency for us to consider the effects of our actions on the environment, economy, and society (Talyor, 2016; Strange and Bayley, 2008; Bell and Morse, 2003). Our consideration should not only be pertinent to the present, but also to the future; not only in our own neightbourhood, workplace, city, or country, but also beyond the borders of these respective spheres (Strange and Bayley, 2008; Basiago, 1999). Bossel (1999:3) is of the opinion that the particular sustainable development concept “an individual/community/society adopts, and its interpretation of it will have
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consequences for the development that that individual/community/society will achieve”.
In conclusion, it can be stated that the constant that emerges from the multitude of definitions of sustainable development is the respective interconnections between the environment, the economy, and society. These are generally referred to as the three pillars of sustainable development (Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: Three E's balance rule: Environment, Equity, Economy Source: SOGESID (n.d.)
The section below provides a brief overview of each of these three components/dimensions:
Social Dimension: According to Mensah (2019), the social dimension involves notions such as equity, empowerment, accessibility, participation, cultural identity, and institutional stability. Cronjé (2007:2) refers to the sustainable social development dimension as the one representing the wellbeing of individuals and society at large. In their quest to achieve social sustainability, the goals that social organisations and structures set themselves include the following: distribution equity, the effective provision of social services, gender equality, and political accountability and participation.
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Economic Dimension: According to Van Wyk (2011:53), “an economically sustainable system is one that supports sustainable livelihoods, and facilitates equitable access to resources and opportunities, including the equal sharing of finite ecologically productive space and the establishment of viable businesses and industries based on sound ethical principles”
According to Cronjé (2007:21), the following principles need to be followed in order to achieve economic sustainability:
Work towards equity within countries, between nations and between generations;
promote ethical business practices (e.g., fair trade); promote business practices that are socially and environmentally responsibleand policies that ensure the equitable distribution of true costs and benefits; support local economies and job creation; and base business success on the level of social and environmental responsibility achieved.
Environmental Dimension: This dimension, including natural resources4 and ecosystem services, focuses on the preservation of “natural capital”. Thus, environmental sustainability is about preserving the qualities that are valued in the physical environment (Sutton, 2004).
Cronjé (2007:18) provides the guiding principles to follow in terms of the environmental dimension, namely,
“Protect the earth’s life-support systems (air, water, soil); use renewable resources no faster than nature can replenish them; minimise the use of non-renewable resources through the three R’s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle); manage waste and prevent pollution; and instil environmental awareness in society and a respect for the load capacity of ecosystems”.
4 Natural resources include both renewable components (e.g., plants and animals) and non-renewable components (e.g., fossil fuels, minerals, and soil).
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To conclude, sustainable development involves the evenly proportioned interaction of the environmental, economic, and social components/dimensions, with the three dimensions being of equal importance, equally interdependent and mutually reinforcing. According to Mensah (2019), the ‘triple bottom line’ (TBL) is the means to represent the balance and harmony between the three dimensions (Mensah, 2019).
2.5.2.3 Sustainable Development as a people-centred approach
The people-centred approach is informed by ideas that evolved primarily out of four contexts: (i) the theoretical works by phenomenologists of the Frankfurt School in the 1950s and 1960s, and especially the work of Jurgen Habermas since the 1970s regarding the relationship between theory and praxis; (ii) the work on student participation in controlling their education, as informed by Paulo Freire, and related questions about the production of knowledge; (iii) work advanced within and through the development of NGOs to shift power relationships within development practice and to redefine the roles of external agents; and (iv) the profound frustrations in respect of failed development projects experienced by many working within the world of externally funded development interventions.
The people-centred approach emerged as a paradigm shift in development thinking during the 1960s and early 1970s, and while participatory development has been described and defined in a variety of ways (Vainio-Mattila, 1997; World Bank, 1996;
Sachs, 1992), all these definitions reflect the desire by those involved as agents of donor agencies to engage more deeply with the contexts of their work. While the genesis of the paradigm shift has been discussed in greater detail elsewhere (Vainio- Mattila, 1996 and 2000), the combined intellectual and experiential basis of the shift is worth noting. The three central discourses ─ emerge-theory versus praxis, production of knowledge, and the role of external agents ─ are described in more detail later in the study. In that section, the meanings of these discourses are discussed in a participatory development context, and their implications for and evidence in community forestry are also analysed.
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There is no uniform definition of a people-centred approach, but there are two key factors when describing such an approach: the actor and the meaning of participation.
In terms of "actor", the literature refers to "people's participation" (McCall, 1987),
"community participation" (Midgeley et al., 1986), "people's own development"
(Swantz, 1986), "community development" (Korten, 1990; Gow and Vansart, 1983), and "self-help" (Verhagen, 1987). The use of these categories reflects a variety of political and sociological epistemologies. The important commonality is the shift from a passive voice (such as in "basic needs development") to an active voice.
The second aspect, the meaning of participation, refers to the positioning of participatory initiatives on the continuum from manipulating participation for the achievement of externally identified project goals to the empowerment of the actors to define such goals themselves, as well as the actions required to achieve them. The participation and empowerment concepts are discussed in detail below. Arnstein's Ladder of Citizen Participation (Arnstein, 1969) is perhaps the best known and the most often cited continuum. The continuum signifies viewing participation in terms of project implementation and on the other hand, viewing participation as an end in itself, that, when achieved, will result in long-term engagement by those involved in the process of solution finding.
The micro foundation of a people-centred approach to development involves the active participation of individuals in their quest to stimulate sustainable development. Most definitions of development include action plans, strategies and programmes aimed at improving the circumstances of the poor and the conditions in the rural areas of developing countries (traditional culture). The micro foundation of a people-centred approach defines development as “the right to live a meaningful life and not just the mere satisfaction of the material needs of people” (Coetzee, 2001:119).
Coetzee (2001:122-126) presents the following six principles associated with the basic people-centred approach to development:
• People can be more than they are - Apart from aiming to bring about material improvement, development from the basic (micro-foundation) perspective aims to increase the level of wellbeing of a human or ‘humanness’. A developmental
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initiative should therefore provide people with the means or tools to become more than they are. This can be achieved through social justice, joint decision- making, the satisfaction of basic needs, respect for the ecosystem and an indigenous lifestyle, freedom of expression, and the advancement of people through their own initiatives.
• Meaning - The people-centred approach to development places the meaning that people attach to their lives as the essence of sustainable development and of their obligations towards this goal. For the success and sustainability of development projects, the following conditions are essential: a desire to work towards an idealised utopia; the use of the existing structures, mainly economic and social, for the purposes of improving the three-dimensional components of sustainable development; and an emphasis on the equitable sharing amongst members of innovative ideas and skills, knowledge, resources, and initiatives.
• Experiencing the life-world – a cultural concept. The probability of development taking place is more likely when people integrate the meanings that they attach to their world into their desire to improve their circumstances.
• Desirable direction ─ Individual decisions and interactions constitute the point of departure for development initiatives. The most appropriate approach would thus be a bottom-up approach. The starting point for development would be to explore people’s definitions of wellbeing and the ways in which they verbalise their desired state. Participation is all important in development initiatives, with shared decision-making, involvement, collaboration, co-operation in mutual creations, and evenly balanced power being the main aspects to consider.
• Consciousness ─ People concerned with development should involve themselves in the development process; they should have the confidence to realise that they have the right to make decisions for themselves. Development studies that are “grounded in consciousness” (of the individual and the community/society) are built on an awareness of the relationship that exists between an individual and his/her community/society.
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