CHAPTER FOUR
THE 27 PRINCIPLES OF AGENDA 21
9.8. GUIDELINES ON PHASING PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
Public participation is not equally relevant and appropriate in each stage of planning, and not all participation procedures are equally suitable for each planning step. To limit participation costs, to avoid participation fatigue, and to optimise the impact of participation, the mechanisms of participation will have to differ from stage to stage. The following guidelines can help municipalities to decide on appropriate tools for the right step:
Planning phase Required intensity Mechanisms of participation
Analysis f.c f.c f.c lE> Community and stakeholder meeting lE> Sample Surveys
lE> Opinion Polls
Strategies f.c District level workshops of IDP committees with representatives of sector departments and selected representatives of stakeholder organisations and resource people.
Project Planning f.c lE> Technical sub-committees with a few selected representatives of stakeholder organisations /civic society (District level IDP)
1~
* *
lE> Intensive dialogue between technical sub- committee and affected communities / stakeholders (Local level IDP) Integration f.c lE> By Representative IDP forum Approval 11: f.c 11: lE> Broad public discussion/consultationprocess within all community stakeholder organisations
lE> Opportunity for comments from residents Monitoring of
*
1~ lE> By Representative IDP forum ImplementationLevel ofInvolvement.
11: 11: 11: High intensity: communities, stakeholders, residents, users and partners.
11: 11: Medium intensity: Involvement of Representative IDP Forum.
*
Low intensity: Small technical committees with selected representatives of the public.APPENDIX 5:
EXTRACT OF SUSTAINABILlTY FRAMEWORK STRATEGIES TABLE No. 301
Table No 3.01 -' , SUSTAINABILlTY F.RAMEWORK:
"TOURISM,ECONOMICOEVELOPMENT,AGRICULTUREANDPOVERTY.,j,~ PRIORITYISSUEHighlevelsofpoverty-RELATEDISSUES(1).Undevelopedemploymentopportunities(2).Under- utilisationofinlandandcoastalassets(3)andhistoricalfocusonbeachtourism. KEYLOCALISEDLA21(8)Sustainableconservationandharnessingofnaturalassets SUSTAINABILlTYGUIDELINES(8)Combatingpovertybyenablingpoorpeopletoachievesustainablelivelihoods -LINKTOKPI'S(8)Genderequityguidelines (8)SustainableLEDandpovertyreliefguidelines STRATEGYOBJECTIVESNoPROJECTNAME&Guidelineoutput S1.OceanbasedsustainablelivelihoodsSF01 DevelopanIntegratedTomaintainandcreatenewjobsandincome1feasibilitystudyoneproiectperLM1 environmentalmanagement/opportunitiesinthe,agricultural,tourismand2InlandSustainablelivelihoodsfeasibility1SFA sustainablelivelihoodassociatedsectorsstudyidentifyingatleastoneprojectper developmentprogrammefor:0Createatlea~t.1500n~wpermanent1-_~m~u~n~ic~ip~ca~li~ttY:-.j...,..+-~ entireDistrictIncomeopportunlt,.esofwhichatleast.12003Environmentalmanagement/han~son1SFE shouldbelocatedIntheruralareaswitheducationprogrammeforcommunrty specificfocusondisadvantagedgroups(At1-_~d~riv~e~n~o~c~e:.:::a~n~h:.:::a~rv:..::e:.:::.st~in~lac.'---+--:-+-=-:::-:-:-_:__-1 least50%women)4Communitybasedoceanharvesting2SFM1 monitorinaproaramme 5Environmentalmanagement/handson1SFE2 educationprogrammeforcommunity drivenagriculturalenterprisesfor sustainablelivelihoods 6Communitybasedagriculturalenterprises2SFM2 monitoringprogramme 7SignificanceassessmentsfortourismtrailsISFT1 S2.TomaintainandincreasethecurrentshareasperSEAandCoastalManagementPlan Maintainandimprovecoastalbeltofdomestictourismby1%1-_~0:.!...f=2~00~0~-+-""""+-=-=_-l withthesimultaneousidentification8Archaeologicalsignificanceassessments1SFT2 anddevelopmentoftourismproductsandmanagementprogrammebetween basedonenvironmentalassetslocalmunicipalitiesasperSEAand CoastalManaaementPlanof2000Tablejr,Jo 3.01
s:t.'I%>;~'"SUSt~INABILI~}:ErtAMEW081!; TOURISM,ECONOMICDEVELOPMEN}T,AGRICULTUREAND'POVERTY W".... PRIORITYISSUEUnderutilisationandpoormanagementofinlandandcoastalassets-RELATEDISSUES(1). levelsofpoverty(2)Undevelopedemploymentoooortunities KEYLOCALISEDLA21lIDSustainableconservationandharnessingofnaturalassets SUSTAINABILlTYGUIDELINESlIDGenderequityguidelines -LINKTOKPI'S STRATEGYOBJECTIVESNoPROJECTNAME&Guidelineoutput CommissionadetailedStateof "Todevelopanopenspacesystemlinkedto9.EnvironmentAssessmentinorderto S3catchmentmanagementandfacilitateandevelopadistrict-wideopenspacesystem Integratetheuseofopenspaceappropriateworkingforwaterprogramme(Atbasedlinkedtocatchmentmanagement acrossthedistrictleast50%women)(Incorporatecatchments,openspaces, ecologicallysensitiveareas,wetlands , Linked-Tocreatea"senseofplace"heritageandculturalresources,) 10CommissionanEnvironmentAudit- (':Tomanagenaturalassetsappropriatelycriteriaandindicatorsthatareinkeeping TomaintainandcreatenewjobsandincomewiththeDFIDrequirementsfor opportunitiesintheassociatedsectors,(Atinternationalfunding.WorldBank'Best least50%women)Tocreatea"senseofPractice'.Initiateproceduresfor S4place"oroclaiminaorotectedareas. Developappropriate11.AdoptappropriateSandWinning an requirements ConservationandRehabilitation Programme 12Soilerosionmanagementprogramme 13Initiateamonitoringprogrammeusingthe Auditdata 14Initiateanappropriaterehabilitation programmeT~QleNo.;. 3.01 .~... . "".iiVJ~:~P,·!, S;t;.,',STAINABILITY FRAME~~~J(~: ,.
.'-~~tt~d}' TOURISMtECON~MI~t:>EVELOPMEN'T
AGRICUL.TUREANttPOVERTY..';f' PRIORITYISSUEDeclineinamenity-RELATEDISSUES(1).Barriersinaccessingresources(2)Inappropriate waterandwetlandmanagement(3)Poormanagementofinlandandcoastalassets(dunes,wetlands, alieninvasiveveQetation) KEYLOCALISEDLA21rE>Sustainablebarrierfreeaccess SUSTAINABILlTYGUIDELINESrE>Sustainablecoreinfrastructuremaintenance -LINKTOKPI'SrE>Sustainableamenitydevelopment rE>Harnessingofnaturalassets rE>Genderequityguidelines STRATEGYOBJECTIVESNoPROJECTNAME&Guidelineoutput S515Treeplantingpilotprogrammes(Oneper <.ToredressthepoorlevelsofamenityMunicipality) CreateasenseofplaceToredresstheaccessbarriersofthepast16Districtwidesolutionsforstormwater throughoutthedistrictmanagementimpactontourismsector oroaramme (Toredresstheimpactofpoorstormwater17Developaprogrammetoenhance managementonamenityandcoretourismaestheticattributesofthedistrict(e.g., attractions.guidelinesonvisualamenity,dune management,vegetationplanting, uoaradinaofsettlements 18Alieninvasiveplantremovalprogramme 19Establishappropriateaccesstobeaches andinlandamenities
Table No·;301 · jl~cr'fil.$·~~:~coNeM'i6!,:a~~~T~ilt:s~:~rdJlt~:.E~I~~~. ...
.:'It..J:.Jp PRIORITYISSUEPoorlyco-ordinatedaariculturaldevelopmentandinappropriatepesticide,medicinalplantusage. KEYLOCALISEDLA21Ii9Sustainableharnessingofnaturalassets SUSTAINABILlTYGUIDELINESI:&>Genderequityguidelines -LINKTOKPI'SIi9PovertyalleviationandLEDguidelines STRATEGYOBJECTIVESNoPROJECTNAME&Guidelineoutput 20InitiateAgriculturalDevelopmentForum1 ~Toco-ordinateanagricultural Developdatabaseofpotentialsmall121 S6developmentprogrammescalefarmers/willinasellers Promotesustainableagricultural:.:.Topromoteaccesstolandforpotential22Developappropriateagricultural1 development smallscalefarmersdevelopmentskillstransferprogrammes 23Developrangeofpilot"good1 ~.Topromotesustainablesoiland practice/soil&pesticidemanagement/ pesticidemanagementinthedistrict.aariculturalproiects" Topromotetheuseofindigenous24Develop"goodpracticegrazing"1 c managementprogramme medicinalplantsinredressingthe25EnterintoagreementswithTraditional1 economicimbalancesofthepast.Authoritiesandhealersonsustainable harvestinaofmuthiplants cTostrivetoensurethattheaccessto26Establishindigenous/muthiplantnursery1 needsofsmall-scalefarmersare 27Upgradeandmaintainaccessroadsas1 addressedsothattheycanbecomecalledforbysmallcanegrowers- (shownonMapNo7) economicallyempowered. 28Upgradeandmaintainaccessroadsas1 calledforbymediumscalecane growers-(shownonMapNo7)Table"t~o·,3,"01.~,•...,.v,I~'"
,SUSTAINA9I1JTY
FRAMEWO,~:9'!
'~:'f-N LANDANDHUMAN
,SETTLEMENTDEVEkQPMENT' PRIORITYISSUEPoorlyco-ordinatedagriculturaldevelopmentandinappropriatepesticide,medicinalplantusageRELATED (1)Environmentaldearadationandassociatedhealthrisk. KEYLOCALISEDLA21lIDSustainableharnessingofnaturalassets SUSTAINABILlTYGUIDELINESlIDGenderequityguidelines -LINKTOKPI'SlIDPovertyalleviationandLEDguidelines STRATEGYOBJECTIVESNoPROJECTNAME&Guidelineoutput 29EstablishanintegratedAdmiralty1 S7.(;1TostrategicallyharnessenvironmentalReserve,offroadvehicle,landscape, resourcesandreducehealthhazardsbybird,medicinalplant,wetland,whaleand EstablishaintegratedLandUse10%p.a.dolohinwatchinamanaaementapproach ManagementSystemwhichisuser30EstablishDistrictWideLandUse friendly,tourist,communityandToempowercitizensofUguintheManaaementForum1 environmentallysensitiveappropriatemanagementofland.31EstablishdistrictwideLUM'sresearch andcapacitybuildingprogramme1 Todevelopsustainablewaste 32Barrierfreeaccess,genderequityandmanagementandrecyclingsystems needsofpeoplewithdisabilities1 integrationprojectlinkedtoLandUse Manaaementoolicvandaareements. 33Initiateappropriateburrowpitlocation study1 34Commissionappropriateland-fillsite study,wastemanagementandrecycling1 programmes-
Tostrategicallyharnessenvironmental35Developdistrictwideagreementson1 resourcesandreducehealthhazardsbyappropriateroadmaintenance,waste S810%p.a.removalandbuildingstandards Promotesustainable Toimprovethelevelofmonitoringand36Establishanappropriate,districtwide1 infrastructuredevelopment maintenanceofkeyresources,buildingsmonitoringandmaintenanceprogramme andinfrastructureEXTRACT OF DETAILED PROJECT SHEETS
SF:7a lace11foreconomicandtourismdevelooment 2.Privatesector!ChamberofCommerce 4..Privatesectoragent-(POI)
3.Privatesectoragent(POI)
1.Alienvegetationmanagementatkeytourismsites,routes andeconomicdeveloomentlocations 1.1Public!Private"adoptasectionofroad"·Partnership 1.2Local-alienplantmanagementcapacitybuilding 1.3Indigenousvegetationreplacingremovedaliens R2,OOO1.OM!PrivateSector!OEAT R10,OOO2.OM!PrivateSector!OEAT!OWAF-"WorkingforWater" R100,OOOR100,OOOR50,OOOR20,OOOR20,OOO3.OM!PrivateSector!OEATIDWAF-"WorklngforWater" R20,OOOR20,OOOR20,OOOR20,OOOR20,OOO4.OM!PrivateSector!OEATIDWAF-"WorkingforWater" R100,OOOR50,OOOR50,OOOR50,OOOR50,OOO5.OM!PrivateSector!OEATIDWAF-"WorkingforWater"
1
R100,OOR200,OOOR300,OOOR300,OOOR300,OOO6.OM!PrivateSector!OEATIDWAF-"WorkingforWater" COST:OperationalR1,480,OOO;Capital·R400,OOOI
R330,OOOR350,OOOR420,OOOR390,OOOR390,OOOTOTALCOSTR1,880,OOO1.SustainableagriculturaldevelopmentintheUguDistrict 1.1SustainableAgriculturalForum 1.2Databaseofsmallscalefarmers-willingsellers 1.3AgreementswithtraditionalAuthoritiesandHealers 1.4Appropriateagriculturalskillstransfer 1.5"GoodPractice"programmes Costs:.estimaJedCapital@JlCl~~peratlonalCosti ~~ 1.1Strategic,actionbasedForumwithasecretary 1.2Developdatabaseofallpotentialfarmers/sellersindistrict 1.3AgreementswithTA 1.3.1Agreementswithtraditionalhealersonmutiplantharvesting 1.4.1Developmentoftrainingmaterials 1.4.2Handsontrainingprogramme 1.5.1Goodpracticedatabase 1.5.2Goodpracticesoilmanagementprogramme 1.5.2Goodpracticegrazingprogramme 1.5.2LocalMarketaccessprogramme 1.5.3Nichemarketexportmarketprogramme 1.5.4Landlegal:atleastonefarmpermunicipalityp.a COST:
R5,OOO Intemal R50,OOO R1,OOO R5,OOO R200,OOO R50,OOO R100,OOO R100,OOO R50,OOO R50,OOO R1,OOO,OOO R1,611,OOO
R50,OOO R1,OOO R5,OOO R200,OOO R50,OOO R100,OOO R100,OOO R50,OOO R50,OOO R1,OOO,OO R1,611,OOO
R1,OOO R5,OOO R200,OOO R1,OOO R100,OOO R100,OOO R50,OOO R50,OOO R1,OOO,OOO R1,611,OOO
R1,OOO R5,OOO R200,OOO R1,OOO R100,OOO R100,OOO R50,OOO R50,OOO R1,OOO,OOO R1,611,OOO
R1,OOO R5,OOO R200,OOO R1,OOO R100,OOO R100,OOO R50,OOO R50,OOO R1,OOO,OOO R1,611,000
DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK DM/LM,DEAA,DEAT,DOT,DLA,IDC,LANDBANK TOTALCOSTR8,055,OOO
SFA:
APPENDIX 1:
THE 27 PRINCIPLES OF AGENDA 21
The twenty-seven principles are spelt out in the document entitled 'Earth Summit, Agenda 21, the United Nations Programme of Action From Rio' (ICLEI 1993). The emphasis is placed on 'Agenda 21' and the reader is invited to study Agenda 21 -
"the programme of action for sustainable development world-wide... in conjunction with the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which provides the context for its specific proposals" (UN1993: 3). The Rio declaration entails the participants commitment to the following 27 principles of Agenda 21 which are cited directly from the text.
"PRINCIPLE 1
Human beings are at the center of concerns for sustainable development.
They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
PRINCIPLE 2
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and developmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their juris- diction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction
PRINCIPLE 3
The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations.
PRINCIPLE 4
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
PRINCIPLE 5
All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world.
PRINCIPLE 6
The special situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most environ- mentally vulnerable, shall be given special priority. International actions in the field of environment and development should also address the interests and needs of all countries.
PRINCIPLE 7
States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, States have common but differentiated responsibilities. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies and financial resources they command.
PRINCIPLE 8
To achieve sustainable development and a higher quality of life for all people, States should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption and promote appropriate demographic policies.
PRINCIPLE 9
States should cooperate to strengthen endogenous capacity building for sustainable development by improving scientific understanding through
exchanges of scientific and technological knowledge, and by enhancing the de- velopment, adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, including new and innovative technologies.
PRINCIPLE 10
Environmental issues are best handled with the participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level. At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities, including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities, and the opportunity to participate in decision-making processes.
States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available. Effective access to judicial and administrative proceedings, including redress and remedy, shall be provided
PRINCIPLE 11
States shall enact effective environmental legislation. Environmental standards, management objectives and priorities should reflect the environmental and developmental context to which they apply. Standards applied by some countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic and social cost to other countries, in particular developing countries.
PRINCIPLE 12
States should cooperate to promote a supportive and open international economic system that would lead to eco- nomic growth and sustainable development in all countries, to better address the problems of environmental
degradation. Trade policy measures for environmental purposes should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided.
Environmental measures addressing trans -boundary or global environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international consensus.
PRINCIPLE 13
States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage. States shall also cooperate in an expeditious and more determined manner to develop further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmental damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond their jurisdiction.
PRINCIPLE 14
States should effectively cooperate to discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to other States of any activities and substances that cause severe environmental degradation or are found to be harmful to human health.
PRINCIPLE 15
In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
PRINCIPLE 16
National authorities should endeavor to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment.
PRINCIPLE 17
Environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the envi- ronment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority.
PRINCIPLE 18
States shall immediately notify other States of any natural disasters or other emergencies that are likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the environment of those States. Every effort shall be made by the international community to help States so afflicted.
PRINCIPLE 19
States shall provide prior and timely notification and relevant information to potentially affected States on activities that may have a significant adverse trans- boundary environmental effect and shall consult with those States at an early stage and in good faith.
PRINCIPLE 20
Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their full participation is therefore essential to achieve sustainable development.
PRINCIPLE 21
The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable development and ensure a better future for all.
PRINCIPLE 22
Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. States should recognize and duly support their identity, culture and interests and enable their effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development.
PRINCIPLE 23
The environment and natural resources of people under oppression, domination and occupation shall be protected.
PRINCIPLE 24
Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development. States shall therefore respect international law providing protection for the environment in times of armed conflict and cooperate in its further development, as necessary.
PRINCIPLE 25
Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.
PRINCIPLE 26
States shall resolve all their environmental disputes peacefully and by appropriate means in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
PRINCIPLE 27
States and people shall cooperate in good faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfillment of the principles embodied in this Declaration and in the further develop- ment of international law in the field of sustainable development" (UN 1992:9-11).
APPENDIX 2:
COMMUNICATIVE JUDGEMENT, UNDERSTANDING AND MEANING IN THE WORK OF HANNAH ARENDT
For Arendt, understanding is the process whereby menlwomen come to reconcile themselves with the world in which they live. Arendt holds that "the result of understanding is meaning" which is generated through the process of living and reconciling oneself to ones actions and sufferings (Arendt 1982:94). This activity becomes problematical in a century in which totalitarianism comes to the fore. Arendt says:
"But confronted with the horror of totalitarianism, we suddenly discover the fact that we have lost our tools of understanding. Our quest for meaning is at the same time prompted and frustrated by our inability to originate meaning."(Arendt 1982:94)
Arendt is referring to the horrors of the Nazi era which she lived through. She was requested to report on the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961. She views Eichmann as an example of a man whose capacity for thought and judgement had atrophied since he was unable to distinguish between good and evil. This prompted her to develop an extensive investigation into the question of judgement. She came to the conclusion that Eichmann could not be dismissed as a 'subhuman creature' as Jaspers thought. She holds that judgement can only function where those judged are neither "beasts or angels" but menlwomen who live and act in society. (Arendt 1982:96). She states the epigraph of modernity as follows:
"No-one has the right to judge somebody else. What public opinion permits us to judge and even to condemn are trends, or whole groups of people. the larger the better, in short, something so general that distinctions can no longer be made, names no longer named. Thus we find, for instance a flourishing of theories of collective guilt or collective innocence of entire peoples. All these cliches have in common that they make judgement superfluous and that to utter them is devoid of all risk. This goes with the reluctance everywhere to make judgements in terms of individual moral responsibility." (Arendt 1982:99)
The atrophy of the capacity for judgement is precisely what made Eichmann's activities possible in the first place, she argues. Arendt views the crisis of totalitarianism as a
crisis in understanding which is co-terminus with a crisis in judgement. Judgement and understanding are held to be so closely related that "one must describe both as the subsumption of something particular under a general rule"(Arendt 1982:95). The basic issue for Arendt is that there are no general rules in terms of which one can take ones bearings. In a manner similar to Max Weber, she describes a disenchanted world in which traditional norms and values have become empty and man's basic common sense seems to have atrophied. She holds that under conditions such as these, when the sources of meaning appear to have dried up, judgement comes into its own. She invokes Augustine's concept of natality, and explains that Augustine, when confronted with a similar crisis of meaning, discovered the hope of a new beginning. The essence of action then becomes that of making a new beginning and understanding for Arendt becomes the
"other side of action, namely that form of cognition, in distinction from many others, by which acting men (and not men who are engaged in contemplating some progressive or doomed course of history) eventually can come to terms with what irrevocably happened and can be reconciled with what unavoidably exists" (1982:96 emphasis mine).
Judgement comes into its own since the understanding process is intimately related to one's capacity for imagination. Through the creative potential of the imagination menlwomen are able to distance themselves from those facts which are close at hand and provide the space in which understanding can function. Imagination allows for both proximity and distance so that judgements can be made. For Arendt the imagination prepares the particular for the operation of "reflection" which "is the actual activity of judging something" (Arendt 1982:68). Thus the particular is made immediately present to one's inner sense so that it can be judged. The "example", in the "Critique of Judgement", fulfils a similar function to the "schema" in Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason".
Arendt develops a communicative interpretation of Kant's work to explain the function of the "example" in the judging process. She proceeds as follows: Kant's greatest discovery is the role the imagination plays in the cognitive faculties of menlwomen. His basic premise is that the faculty of imagination "provides schemata for cognition and examples for jUdgement" (Arendt 1982:80). For Kant, there are two aspects of experience and knowledge. Namely intuition (sensibility) and concepts (understanding).
Arendt explains that the "intuition always gives us something particular; the concept
makes this particular known to us" (Arendt 1982:80). For example, if one says "this book", it is as though the intuition says "this" and the understanding adds "book". The
"this" pertains to a specific entity or item, while "book" identifies the item and makes the object communicable. Arendt asks: How do the two faculties come together? Kant's answer is that the synthesis of the manifold occurs through the imagination which unites the elements into a certain content. This synthetic unity occurs through the image or
"schema" which the imagination provides "for the concept". Thus, for Kant, the imagination is the "faculty of synthesis in general' (Arendt 1982:81). Arendt holds that without the "schema", one would not be able to recognize anything in the manifold of things since everything would be a "this". The important aspect which she wants to stress is that particulars are communicable. She asks, what makes particulars communicable? The answer is that in perceiving a particular entity everyone has a schema of the entity in their "mind's eye" as it were. This schema is then characteristic of many particulars. The schemata which each person holds are the products of the synthetic imagination. No schema can be brought to the fore in and of itself. All agreement and disagreements must then pre-suppose that the communicators are speaking about the same thing, such that we who are many, come "together on something that is the same for all" (Arendt 1982:83). This interpretation of Kant's work in a communicative frame of reference is extended in the analysis of reflective judgement, as follows: Arendt highlights the fact that determinate judgements subsume a particular under a general rule, while reflective judgement in contrast, "derives the rule from the particular" (1982:83). Through the schema, one perceives a universal in the particular, Arendt argues. Through the example, in reflective jUdgement one rises from the particular to the general. This requires an enlargement of mind or as Arendt puts it, an
"enlarged mentality" (1982:83). Exemplary validity is achieved through the appropriate choice of the example. Arendt asks after the standards of the operation of reflection, and Kant's answer, she points out, is that of "approbation and disapprobation" (Arendt 1982:69). In other words the formal declaration of approval or disapproval, the 'Yes!
No!' response of the subject. The criterion of judgement is its communicability and the standard of judgement is common sense. Arendt follows Kant in her understanding of common sense as 'community sense'. This community sense is never private since one judges as a member of a community. This requires an "enlarged mentality"
whereby one's imagination and representative thinking enables one to "think in