SECTION I 7.21.1.14 Policy
2.2 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SPHERES OF GOVERNMENT
2.2.3 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION APPROACHES
2.2.3.2 INNOVATIVE APPROACH
In his definition of public administration, Schwella also points to the key concepts of processes or activities and to the setting of government policy and the execution of this policy, he adds another element to this definition, namely that public administration operates within a particular society as environment.
Schwella (1991:2) defines public administration as:
that system of structures and processes;
operating within a particular society as environment;
with the objective of facilitating the formulation of appropriate governmental policy;
and
the efficient execution of that policy.
Management of public affairs is an important aspect of public administration. The assessment of public management functions is dependent to a large degree, on the
environment it serves. It is for this reason that a public management model becomes necessary (Schwella 1991:1). According to Schwella (1991:2) the public management model stresses the importance of the environment for the theory and practice of public management.
Public management application attempts to incorporate a wide spectrum of management, knowledge and skills into integrated and systematic approaches, to improve the quality of public management. Examples include policy analysis, strategic management and organisation development. Supportive technology and techniques provide tools and aids that may be used, when necessary in conjunction with and in support of public management function and skills and when using public management application (Schwella 1991:2).
The public management environment consists of general specific components (Schwella 1991:5). The general component includes the political, economics, social, cultural and technological aspects of the environment. The specific environment includes suppliers, regulators, competitors and consumers. Public management functions include policy- making, planning, organising leadership, motivation, control and evaluation (Schwella 1991:5).
Public management like management, generally, requires skills for competent decision- making, constructive negotiation, the successful management of conflict, change and bargaining. In exercising public management functions and skills, public managers can be assessed by using available supportive technological aids and techniques.
Computer technology and information management are examples of this. In order to enhance the function of public management, areas of operation need to be constantly researched (Botes 1994: 191-192; Schwella 1991: 6). Schwella et al also illustrates his model of Public Management in figure 2.3 below:
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Figure 2.3 Scbwella's at al Public Management Model.
GENERAL ENVIRONMENT
SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT
GENERAL ENVIRONMENT
Political • Social • Economic • Technological • Cullural
SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENT
Suppliers. CompetItors. Hegulators • Consumers
FUNCTIONS SKILLS APPLICATIONS
PolIcy makIng Decision makIng PolIcy analysis Strategic management
Planning Communication
Organising Management of change Organisation development leading Management of conflict SUPPORTIVE TECHNOLOGY
AND TECHNIQUES Control and evaluallon Negotiation
Computer technology and InformaUon management
.'
Techniques for publIc management
Adapted from Scbwella, Burger, Fox & Muller (1997:7)
2.2.3.2.1 THE EMPHASIS ON THE CLOETE-SCHWELLA APPROACH
Cloete et al (1996:8) expresses the following key generic administrative processes within a conceptual and directive dimensions, in public administration, viz.
Policy-making, orgamsmg, financing, staffing, work methods and procedures and control.
Schwella stresses the importance of the environment (general and specific) in public administration. The general environment includes the following (Schwella at.al. 1996:8)
VIZ.
political;
social;
economical;
technological; and cultural.
The specific environment comprises viz.
suppliers;
competitors;
regulators; and consumers.
An illustration of the Cloete-Schwella approach is presented in figure 2.4 below and the discussion and the discussion thereafter.
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Figure 2.4 CLEOTE-SCHWELLA Approach
Public
Administration
1 +
L - - -_ .. __ ;-_ _ _ _ - - - '~
Normative Guidelines
).> Efficiency and effectiveness
).> Democracy
.. ...
Central GovernmentProvincial Government I.oeal G()vernment
).> Accountability
).> Transparency
).> Fairness
).> Reasonableness
).> Balanced Decisions
.,
).> Ethical Norms and Values Public Functionaries
Public Office Bearers Public Officials
).> Response to Public demands
1 •
Facilities & Materials
Offices Workshops Equipment Furniture Transport Uniforms Stationary
..
~1 +
Skills
Decision Making Communication Management of Change Management of Conflict Negotiation
Research Public Relations Creativity
Processes
Policy Making Organising Financing Staffing work methods and Procedures Control
Public
• Needs
• Wants
• Desires
~
Functions
Planning Leading Motivating Auditing Evaluating Disciplining
1
, . - - - Political institutionsGoverning institutions Executive Institutions General Environment
• Social
~.
• Political
•
•
•
Economical Technology Cultural
Specific Environment Suppliers
• Competitors
• Regulators
• Consumers
Technology
+
GIS
~
Behavioural Science Centered Technology Supportive Technology Quantitative Technology Information Technology Techniques for Public Management
-~
Applications
Policy Analysis Strategic Management Organisation
Development
Management Applications
Conducting Meetings t .. __ _ . _._._. ___ _ _ __ . _ _ __ _
~
-_._---------Goals LED Health Housing Sanitation
Promotion
..
Of~ The Quality
This approach calls for innovative combinations of alternative arrangements (generic processes and environment) to promote service delivery in the face of rapidly growing urban population.
The process of local economlC development calls for specific urban policies and initiatives in South Africa. These policies should be part of a balanced and integrated development strategy to ensure growth and effective service delivery (Local Government:
White Paper 1998:78).
The policy implementation is a very difficult stage because of various resources, such as financial, human resources, and equipments which are not sufficient to render the services expected.
In addition, policy implementation has an impact on urban population in developing countries which are growing at a phenomenal rate. This poses a huge challenge to local government for the management of urban development (Devas & Rakodi 1993:1).
Furthermore, urban dwellers are placing unprecedented strains on the financial and administrative capacity of local governments to provide the basic urban social services and infrastructure such as local economic development, transport, water, health and education (Hillard 1992: 169).
When local economic development is identified, as a basic need, a formal arrangement of people is needed to perform particular activities. An organisational structure such as branches, divisions, sections or units are formed for the smooth facilitation of goals. Aspects of co-ordination and delegation of power is inevitable in service rendering institutions (Sing & Moodley 1996:86).
A staffing function consists of a network of functional activities which must be exercised in order to provide, utilise, remunerate, train, develop and motivate corps of personnel for the public sector (Andrews 1988:35).
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Local government often lacks skilled personnel to plan and manage service delivery especially to the poorer sections of the city. The type of experience knowledge and attitude that engineers, consultants, contractors and municipal functionaries and leaders possess, to reach public goal, cannot be compromised (Gilbert, et al 1996:30-33).
Urban dwellers need access to basic services such as water economic development and these can only be achieved if municipal functionaries are professional, competent, responsive and sensitive to peoples needs (Bayat & Meyer 1994:36-39).
All types of institutions whether public or private rely heavily on effective communication for their efficient performance (Cloete 1986:79). In this study, the Department of Economic Development the International Convention Centre unit and the Durban Metropolitan Council is no exception.
The citizens pay taxes to finance the activities of public institutions. It is imperative, therefore, that financial resources are utilised effectively and efficiently commensurate with proper financial guidelines, monitoring techniques and reporting systems (Moodley
& Sing 1996:184).
Local authorities are accountable for the collection of rates and levies. In the same vein, they should be transparent in their action and dealings with the municipal electorate and avoid all forms of mal-administration and unethical conduct of municipal officials. The normative guidelines of public administration must prevail at all times (Moodley & Sing
1996: 184; Section 195 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996).
It is imperative that work methods and procedures are constantly reviewed, improved and devised to meet the basic needs of a society in transition (Cloete 1991 :53).
The main responsibility of control function is to ensure that account is given in public for everything public authorities do or neglect to do. There are different types of control
measure, for example, written reports, inspection, investigation and internal auditing (Cloete 1991:53).
The quantity and quality of products, goods and services such as economic development and health must be continuously reviewed to prevent impurities and other harmful sicknesses.
Local economic development also has a profound effect on the environment and a public manager is expected to act as a leader, initiator and stimulator to manage change and promote effective service delivery.
The policy of separate development by the National Party Government has been the main cause of uneven and unequal local economic development patterns in South Africa (Maharaj 1995:33).
There was separate social, residential, industrial and political development among the different races. Whites were a privileged minority group that lived in urban areas with fully functional and high quality services whilst the majority of South Africans were denied political representations and lived under the most marginal conditions in rural areas, often with lower quality or non-existent service delivery (Smith 1992:2)
Today, a stable and democratic political environment is a recipe for addressing urban development and the efficient and effective delivery of local economic development for all South Africans, irrespective of race, colour or creed.
The economic decline that South Africa faces has impacted negatively on the ability of ordinary citizens to pay for basic services, thus crippling the financial base of local structures (GEAR 1996: 1).
It can, therefore, be deduced that local government needs a concerted economic strategy to address urban issues if it is to respond more effectively to the changing needs of its
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These institutions control the impact of monetary values in the proviSion of local economic development and undertake a continuous research to solve development issues.
It can be stated that citizens have unlimited needs, wants, desires which include housing, transport, water, and electricity but limited resources with which to satisfy these needs.
Competitors could include the private sector, international donors, funders and non- governmental organisations who can provide the same services as public institutions. The private sector generally has adequate financial resources, technical expertise and superior quality goods which can be provided at either a cheaper or more expensive rate.
It is essential that public functionaries have the necessary facilities and materials to perform their duties. In view thereof, the need for offices, workshops, equipment, furniture, transport, uniforms and stationery are emphasised. Public managers also require the following management functions, skills and applications:
FUNCTIONS
Planning, leading, motivation, auditing, evaluation and disciplining.
SKILLS
Decision-making, communication, management of change, management of conflict, negotiation, research, public relations and conducting meetings.
APPLICATIONS
Policy analysis, strategic management, organisation development and management application.
Ultimately the goals (local economiC development, transport, housing electricity, education and health) will be accomplished and the quality of life of the citizenry will be promoted.
2.2.3.2.2 LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION
Local government administration is a specialised branch of public administration found at the municipal or local government sphere (Cloete 1998:85). Consequently, the functions and processes carried out in municipal administration are very similar to those in public administration.
2.2.3.2.2.1 PRINCIPLES GOVERNING LOCAL GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION The principle governing public administration is mutandis mutatis to local government administration. It is important for municipal functionaries to abide by the following principles (Bayat & Meyer 1994:40; Loxton 1994:105; Ramokgopa 1997:232-233; Gildenhuys 1997:111; Cloete 1998:91):
professional ethics must be promoted and maintained;
efficient, economic and effective use of resources must be promoted;
services must be provided impartially, fairly, equitably and without bias;
people's needs must be responded to, and the public must be encouraged to participate in policy-making;
every official is accountable for his/her actions or inaction's;
every official must display insight and take balanced decisions without ulterior motives; and
transparency must be fostered by providing the public with timely accessible and accurate information.
2.2.3.2.2.2 Public Resource Management
The management of public resources can only be analysed and discussed or in the context in which it takes place. One needs to understand both the context and the functions; skills and techniques required for managing public resources properly. Because of this, public resource management must be linked to the public administration system and the public management model designed by Fox Schwella and Wissink (Schwella et. al. 1996:3).
Public resource management takes place in the contexts of general and specific environments generated by the public administration system. The general environment is
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political, economical, social cultural and technological in nature. Suppliers, regulators, competitors and consumers constitute the specific environment. Further analyses of the environment and contextual impacts must relate to public management functions, skills and applications.
Public resource management, therefore, aims to manage resources allocated by politically legitimate means to public institutions in the most effective and efficient way. It seeks to attain the policy goal and objectives of constitutional government structure. The most public resources are human, financial, information and natural resources.
The effective, efficient and productive management of public resources is subject to political economic and social imperatives. The more theoretical and technical aspect of public management should always be considered in pursuing legitimate policy goals and objectives (Schwella et. aI. 1996:3).
People often erroneously assume the introduction of public management into the theory and practise. Public administration suspends, subsumes or replaces that discipline. This fallacious assumption is especially prevalent among those who view public administration as merely a process. This is to say public management and public resource management are disciplines within public administration.
Their study does not suspend the need to study public administration as a whole, with its own societal contexts, structures and functions. In this sense, public management and public resource management represent foci within public administration. Theoretically and practically, such foci are useful for teaching and for managing public institutions.
They do not negate the need to study other aspects of public administration (Schwella et.
al. 1996:6).
There are new approaches that deal with public management. These approaches recognise the dynamic nature of the public resource management and attempt to explore the possible consequences of recent developments and emerging issues. These emergent
approaches are on a rapidly nearing horizon and demand consideration. Noteworthy approaches raised include:
• the impact on and implications for public sector resource management of an increasing diversity permeating societies and the public sector workforce;
• introducing the philosophy, ideas and technique of entrepreneurship to public sector institutions;
• the impact of post modernism on public sector organisations- how they are managed, their resource utilisation, etc;
• the ideal of sustainable development and the issues relating to it; and
• ensuring care for the managed resources through sustainable development. (schwella et. al. 1996: 12).
2.2.3.2.2.3 Information Management
Information management is also called information resource management; the planning, organisation, development and control of the information and data in an organisation and of the people, hardware, software and systems that produce the data and information (Fox
& Meyer, 1995:64).
2.2.3.2.2.4 Financial Management
In the same way as the individual needs money to buy goods and servIces, a local authority needs money to perform its function. The local authority needs money to obtain the services of personnel, to buy machines and equipment with which to provide services and to pay for the services rendered to it by other institutions and individuals. No expenditure is possible without income.
The safekeeping and the spending of money are significant activities of local authorities. For every financial transaction, public accountability must be possible. Therefore, it is understandable that all financial activities which have to be undertaken are subject to strict directives eloete (1998:125).
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2.2.3.2.2.5 Human Resources Management
The process of economic development is normally slow and requires co-operation among many groups. Firstly, the developing countries like South Africa must recognise its need to improve the living standard and then try to bring about change. South Africa should establish a national plan for growth. Sources for funding must be found to finance projects. Finally, groundwork must be established to allow market forces to work in the country as development occurs.
Improvement in the standard of living may be a goal of every country, but because of differences in each country, improvement in the living standard may be difficult to attain.
Such traits as positive work attitudes, an emphasis on education, and slow population growth may lead to an improved standard of living. A large supply of capital and a stable government also promote economic growth.
Every country has physical and human resources. Physical resources are the tools and materials of production, such as machines, equipment and land. Human resources include the labour force of a country and the skills that individuals in the labour force possess.
Such resources are part of the country's capital.
Several factors determine the productivity of both types of resources. Physical capital such as machinery may become productive with technological advances. A country itself may become more productive as the amount of available capital increases. Usually as a country develops, the quality of human capital also improves Mc Dougal (1991:514).
2.2.3.2.2.6 Technology
The concept of technology has different meanings, Anthony (1984: 125) for example describes technology as "the art and science employed in the production and distribution of goods and services". In other words, technology is the way goods and services are produced through a specialised process. Information technology can therefore, be defined as the art and science of producing and distributing information in a particular manner to suit the needs of the users (Fox et. al. 1991 :255).
On the other hand, management technology has however, been devised to suit any particular setting inspired by the urge to rationalise public decisions. The Industrial Revolution introduced new forms of technology and organisation where people were replaced by machines and mass production systems where established. In this era, the emphasis is on technological development and the trend towards work specialisation acted as obstacles to the formulation of an integrated and systematic study of production Fox et. al. (1991:275). Until the end of the 19th century the decision making relied