4.6 Data generation methods
4.6.3 Interviews
Interviews were found to be the most popular method in qualitative research (Cohen, Manion
& Morrison, 2000; Henning et al, 2004; Bamberger, 2006). Interviews are defined as a two- way conversation in which the interviewer asks the participants questions to generate data and to learn about ideas, beliefs, views, opinions and behaviours of the participant while participants answer back. Essentially, the purpose of the interviews is to get information and to explore meaning (Malcolm, 2001). Malcolm (2001) further mentions three essential phases when conducting interviews. It is the beginning phase where the researcher‟s purpose is to establish rapport and set the agenda. Secondly, it is the body of the interview where the researcher works through the agenda, getting information and meanings. Lastly, it is where the researcher winds down the discussion. This is where the researcher can comment on aspects of the information and inviting questions or additional comments. Interview is often used in case studies (Bassey, 1999). Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) argue that the interview is a flexible tool for data collection, enabling multi-sensory channels to be used;
verbal, non-verbal, spoken and heard. Rule and John (2011) concur with this view and suggested some guidelines for conducting good interviews. Some of them are that of establishing a relaxed atmosphere and the nature and purpose of the study to be explained (Tshifura, 2012). The interviewer must allow the interviewee to ask questions of clarification about the study and make sure that the participant is willing to proceed with the study before beginning with interviews. Berg (2009) argues that interviewer must inform the interviewee
73 about ethical obligations and during the interview, the interviewer may ask additional questions and probe beyond the questions on their lists. The interview should not begin with demanding question. Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2009) suggest the type of questions to be asked.
The questions used for interviews should be prompting allowing the participant to elaborate on the topic. These questions keep the interaction flowing.
During interviews, the interviewer must be a good listener to avoid interrupting the interviewee. Corbin and Strauss (2008) suggest some things to consider when conducting interviews. Confidentiality is one of the things required when conducting interviews. It is where pseudonyms are used instead of real names. The interviewer must ensure the participants their confidentiality. The interviewer should not lead participants to desired or preconceived conclusions or use non-verbal language to reinforce or discourage certain response. Appropriate permission must be obtained from the participants in order to record or videotape the interview. First interview conducted was semi-structured interview with school principals then with HODs and lastly with teachers.
4.6.3.1 Semi - structured Interviews
Semi-structured interview was selected as the means of generating data because it is suitable for the exploration of the perceptions and opinions of the participants regarding complex and sometimes sensitive issues and enable probing for more information and clarification of answers (Barriball, & White, 1994). Semi-structured interviews are widely used in qualitative research. Semi-structured interviews are defined by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011) as a prepared guide which allows open-ended conversation and where further probing can be undertaken. I used this data generation methods because it allows for follow-up questions and probes which enabled me to ask further questions for clarity purposes or for confirmation of my interpretation of what the participants were telling me about. By so doing, trustworthiness of what I was finding was enhanced. The view is supported by Nieuwenhuis (2012) who argues that semi-structured interviews allow for further questioning and discussion as inspired by the initial responses, with the conversation yielding rich insights as it deviated from the original question. The aim of using semi-structured interviews was to obtain information from a number of people while placing less emphasis on a standard approach (Johnson, 1994). Moreover, semi-structured interviews make allowances for the researcher to
74 seek clarification and elaborating during the interview process (Dawson, 2009; Cohen, et al.
2011; Nieuwenhuis, 2012). This implies that this type of interviews is flexible and adaptable.
Maree (2007) argues that the process of interviewing requires participant to answer a set of predetermined questions. Semi-structured interviews involve pre-set questions which initiated discussion, followed by further questions which arise from discussion (Maree, 2007). Rubin (2004) concurs with this view commenting on preparing questions ahead of time. The aim of employing semi-structured interviews for this study was to get the principals‟, the HODs‟ and the teachers‟ perspectives on understanding their role in implementing Inclusive Education policy. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with all three categories of participants separately, thus allowing them the opportunity to express their views freely. Semi-structured interview took place in their natural setting (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011).
The researcher must establish relationships with the participants before engaging them in formal interviews. In this study, I started a relationship with the participants when visited their respective schools when I was still introducing the study to them. Through these visits, I was able to observe the culture of schools. Ethical issues were discussed with the participants prior to the interview‟s commencement. Prior interview date, time and venue were negotiated with interviewee.Venues for the interviews were arranged on time and were comfortable without any disturbance. I considered what Nieuwenhuis (2012) argues is the ideal settings for the interviews, namely, the locations where there were no interruptions or distractions and that the participants should be physically and emotionally comfortable. It was conducted in one of offices when school was out as it was stated by the Department of Education that the study should not interfere with teaching and learning in schools. The interviews lasted for between 45 minutes to 1 hour with each participant. I outlined fully the purpose of research and how interview data was going to be used.
The digital audio-recorder was used to record verbatim the content and the process of the interviews and then transcription was done afterwards. The purpose and the significance of using the audio-recorder was discussed with participants prior using it as part of ethical considerations. The interviews were recorded with the aim of ensuring authenticity and avoiding possible misinterpretations that might arise afterwards. Audio-recording was found to be useful in the sense that it allowed me time to listen to the interviewees attentively and I was able to respond to their questions and I also probed their responses. According to
75 Wellington (2000), using a tape recorder has advantages and disadvantages too. These two views are summarised in table below:
Advantages Disadvantages
Tape recorder preserves actual natural language.
It can be flattering for interviewee.
Is an 'objective' record.
Interviewer's contribution is also recorded and can be reflected upon.
Allows interviewer to concentrate, to maintain eye contact and to observe body language.
Can generate enormous amounts of data.
It is time-consuming to transcribe.
Context not recorded.
Presence of machine can be off-putting, e.g.
creates anxiety.
Core issues may be masked by irrelevancies.
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of audio-recording
The above mentioned information especially the disadvantages on one hand, helped me to take caution of some factors that might have hindered the process. Acknowledging such factors minimised the problems that might have arisen. The advantages on the other hand helped me to make the best out of the whole process. Mkhize (2007) emphasises that the researcher has to ensure that all mechanical aspects are taken care of to avoid any distraction that might have resulted. For example, audio-recorder lasted each interview without being changed. The interviewee was then not distracted. At the end of the interview, the participants were given an opportunity to share their views on the study which was out of planned interview questions. I also gave them the opportunity to highlight some of the things that relate to the focus of our discussion that I may not have asked them. In fact, I realised that such an approach was useful because, the participants got an opportunity to add their own story to the discussion and more insights were generated through that process.
76 4.6.4 Research instruments
Research instruments are the tools that researchers use in order to generate information required for the study. Instruments include questionnaires, interviews schedule, observation schedule and sometimes reading. The validity and reliability of any research project depends to a large extent on the appropriateness of the instruments. However, as discussed later on in this chapter, qualitative researchers use alternative concepts instead of validity and reliability that are used in quantitative inquiry.