37 implementation of policy, strategies and action plans needed to be developed to address the needs identified which are managerial needs and priorities (Van Zyl, 2012). Ainscow (1995) is of the view that there is more to successful implementation than simply producing a strategic plan. It is in the links between planning and action which in the end justify the effort put into planning activities. The practical focus on the impact of planning rather than the technical merits of different planning systems or approaches has to be kept in mind (Ainscow, 1995). In line with this line of thought, Ainscow (1995) further provides the following prerequisites for the successful planning in education management. The first argues that planning must be linked to common vision for the future. It is important that priorities for planning arise from this vision. Where there is a lack of congruence between a long term goal and a particular initiative, it is difficult to build commitment amongst the staff. The second argues that widespread involvement of staff in planning process gives assurance to their individual goals and that organisational goals are tied together. Involvement in the planning activity seems to be more important than producing plans; it is through collective planning that goals emerge and differences can be resolved and basis for action created.
38 2.9 Challenges encountered by the School Management Teams in implementing the policy
The literature reviewed has indicated that most if not all countries have implemented Inclusive Education policy. While implementing Inclusive Education policy, they had challenges but these challenges did not hinder them to have the policy implemented. Four categories of challenges were identified, and these are teacher- education challenges; the lack of material and financial resources; curriculum - related challenges and the challenge of physical and psychological learning environments. Each of these challenges is discussed below.
2.9. 1 Teacher education challenges
In developing countries like South Africa and Namibia for example, teacher education was historically, uneven and fragmented (Engelbrecht & Green, 2006). Teachers serving under different administrations did not receive the same training (Engelbrecht & Green, 2006). The various education programmes had different entry requirements, scope, duration, organisation and focus (Engelbrecht & Green, 2006). The major challenge was that South African teachers were exposed for many years to the apartheid education system, which was teacher-centred and authoritarian (Donohoue, 2014). Teachers were not trained for practices within Inclusive Education system (Mambo, 2011). Many teachers felt threatened by the different practices introduced in the curriculum and Inclusive Education training initiatives. The challenge was to equip teachers with skills and to strengthen their beliefs in themselves as lifelong learners within their profession (Dalton, 2012).
2.9.2 Material and financial resources
Signatories to the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994) and the framework for action on special needs education committed themselves to providing adequate human and financial resources when offering Inclusive Education services to all their children, including those with diverse needs. To live up to this commitment, the signatories gave the highest national budgetary allocation to (UNESCO, 1994). This was confirmed by Gislason (2010) when saying that facilities provided in schools play a role in student learning. Despite the commitment to provide adequate human and financial resources, education in South Africa
39 faced a challenge of a lack of adequately trained teachers and sufficient classrooms, as well as other educational facilities. In contrast to commitments made in the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), a small amount of money in terms of funding is allocated on educational issues such as providing adequate school infrastructure, teaching and learning materials. This hinders the effective implementation of a coherent basic education programme in the country (Zimba, Mowels & Naanda, 2007). For instance, the implementation of an Inclusive Education programme is, among other things, hampered by a severe lack of human and material resources. Both rural and urban schools lack the resources to engage in Inclusive Education practices but prudently utilise the available resources (Zimba, Mowels & Naanda, 2007).
2.9.3 Curriculum challenges
The curriculum inherited from previous governments in various states such as Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho and Botswana bore little relevance to the lives and experiences of most people (Department of Education, 1997). The curriculum was prescriptive, decontextualised and emphasised a passive process of learning. Learners were seen as receivers and not creators of knowledge (Department of Education, 1997). After the countries attained their independence, there was a great need to transform their education systems including paying special attention to areas that had been neglected by the previous regimes.
2.9.4 Physical and psychological learning environments
Inclusive Education policy means that education service providers such as schools should ensure that all children have access to good quality education. This implies creating an environment in schools in which all children are able to learn. The development of environments that are conducive to learning is an essential component of the overall efforts by most countries to improve the quality of education and increase access to schools (Stofile& Green, 2007). A large number of schools in South Africa still have overcrowded classrooms and lack physical spaces for learner discussions, equipment to enable learner investigations, and materials to make learning interesting, relevant and challenging (Stofile&
Green, 2007). These conditions prevent access to schools, create conditions that are not
40 conducive to learning, and affect the effective implementation of Inclusive Education policy (Engelbrecht & Green, 2006).
The above mentioned challenges indicated that Inclusive Education policy is not free from challenges. Challenges mentioned above were divided into two categories which were meso level and micro level (Engelbrecht & Green, 2007). The lack of resources affected the implementation of Inclusive Education policy because it is impossible to implement Inclusive Education policy in the absence of teaching and learning materials. Another group of challenges focuses on the lack of adequate training of teachers which contributes to most of these challenges because it is highly impossible to expect an educator who is not fully trained to effectively teach learners (Engelbrecht & Green, 2007). The Department of Education also needs to accept some of the blame for the persistence of these challenges. For example, the Department of Education failed to provide schools with enough classrooms for Inclusive teaching (Tshifura, 2012). Nevertheless, attempts have been made to address the challenges highlighted above.