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2.2 Introduction
Human activity has been in the limelight recently because of the negative impacts’ humans have had on the environment (McKinney 2002; McCleery et al. 2012; Mahmoud and Gan 2018).
Anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and urbanisation have harmed fauna and flora species on a global scale. Many species have been locally or globally extinct because of human activities and negligence, and it is widely suggested that species extinctions will occur more frequently in the near future (McKinney 2002; McCleery et al. 2012; Mahmoud and Gan 2018).
One of the major problems in gaining an insight into most species' state is the actual monitoring of their numbers and spatial information about individuals, groups or populations. Recently, there has been greater global awareness of the impact humans have had on biodiversity and the adverse effect of biodiversity loss on humans (McKinney 2002; McCleery et al. 2012; Mahmoud and Gan 2018). Through this realisation, in many countries, the initiative has been taken to implement strategies that deal with monitoring species populations and distributions to reduce biodiversity loss (McKinney 2002; McCleery et al. 2012; Mahmoud and Gan 2018).
Technology has developed considerably in the last two decades, resulting in a more efficient and reliable monitoring of species (Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020). There was a time when access to information, especially reputable data from a specific study or the most efficient method to analyse data, was unobtainable or restricted. There was also a lack of awareness about such studies and investigator findings. Subsequently, many programmes have become open- access with open-source software, meaning that members of the public have access to these programmes, the data in them, contribute and use the tools to analyse the data (Wall et al. 2014;
Nicheporchuk et al. 2020).
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It is without a doubt that one the most beneficial features that have, in most cases, been freely available to the public is that of geographical information (Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020). Geographical information consists of spatial and attributional data of an object, a landscape or living organism which can be interpreted through various geographic outputs such as satellite imagery and map/atlas outputs (Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020). Geographical information has been key to use as a variable for biodiversity monitoring, especially for critically endangered species or those of high importance (flagship/key species and/or those species that are tourist attractions) (Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020).
Although monitoring species is generally associated with wildlife tracking in the form of Global Positioning System (GPS) trackers, radio-telemetry or bio-loggers, they are very costly and, in most cases, certain conditions have to be met to use these methods (Thomas et al. 2012;
Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020). This has led to restrictions on studies in terms of what investigative methods can be undertaken during the data collection period. Although the information collected may be of high quality concerning some variables, it may come at the expense of study aims which draw attention to parts of the data that is insufficiently collected (Thomas et al. 2012; Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020). The use of the incorrect methodological approaches along with time constraints and not having enough labour force or
‘hands on deck’ to assist with collecting or processing data have been common limiting factors for species monitoring studies, especially concerning their distributions over large geographical regions (Thomas et al. 2012; Wall et al. 2014; Nicheporchuk et al. 2020).
The aid of interested parties in identifying, collecting or contributing information to a study through an approach termed “citizen science” has been used, in numerous studies, to effectively deal with some of the constraints mentioned above (Connors et al. 2012). Citizen science is when
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a member of the public or any other interested party not originally associated with the study/project, contributes through data collection, data processing and/or the sharing of knowledge (such as indigenous knowledge) and essentially collaborates with those carrying out the study/project (Cohn 2008; Bonney et al. 2009; Dickinson et al. 2010; Connors et al. 2012; Rose et al. 2020). It has become an integral component of many fields of study with anthropogenic elements and will grow in importance, the more human populations increase, and the further their actions impact the planet.
Historically, the involvement of citizens in studies was restricted to a select few in that only those that had the means and resources to participate were allowed to (Cohn 2008; Bonney et al. 2009; Silvertown 2009). Widespread contributions in citizen science originally belonged in developed countries that had the infrastructure and citizens with the means to carry out their volunteer research (Cohn 2008; Bonney et al. 2009; Silvertown 2009). With the advent of more developed and accessible technologies, there has been greater involvement and more significant contributions from public members of developing countries as well, especially for projects associated with natural science fields such as ecology (Harrison et al. 2008; Dickinson et al. 2010;
Lee et al. 2017; Harrison 2020). Citizen science does not always allow for contributions on all species, but for some animal species such as birds, this approach has been invaluable (Greenwood 2007; Silvertown 2009; Lee et al. 2017; Harebottle 2020). For example, the Christmas Bird Count (CPC) in the United States of America has taken place every year since 1900 because of the efforts of the National Audubon Society and several thousand volunteers which has sometimes resulted in the yearly recording of over 60 million birds during the Christmas period (Silvertown 2009). In a developing region such as southern Africa, one such effective project is the “Southern African Bird Atlas Project” whereby the public can contribute valuable information concerning the
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identifying and locational recording of bird species that have been sighted in the region (Harrison et al. 2008; Loftie-Eaton 2015; Lee et al. 2017; Harebottle 2020; Harrison 2020; Rose et al. 2020;
SABAP2 2021a).
The Southern African Bird Atlas Project involves the distributional mapping of bird species that have been sighted and identified in Botswana, eSwatini, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe (SABAP2 2021a). The project was broken up into two parts, namely SABAP1 with recordings mainly taking place from 1987 to 1991 but records were collected until 1993 for some species including the Spotted Thick-knee (Burhinus capensis)); and SABAP2 with recordings from 2007 and currently ongoing as of 2020 (SABAP2 2021a). The project was implemented to allow for a more efficient manner in mapping the distribution and relative abundance of the many bird species found living, breeding or migrating to/from the southern African region (Harrison et al. 2008; Loftie-Eaton 2015; SABAP2 2021a). This is done by way of participants identifying and recording the location of the bird species they observe in a geographically sectioned area known as a ‘pentad’ within a set period. The information is then uploaded to the Southern African Bird Atlas Project database where it is freely accessible for those requiring distributional information for bird species to use, whether in research or to help inform the public and create awareness (SABAP2 2021a).
Over the years, the Southern African Bird Atlas Project (SABAP2) with over 2 million records collected yearly, has been identified as a valuable tool to provide information for aspects such as determining species conservation status (such as the red-list status of some species);
identifying areas of importance to establish as key biodiversity areas for species; and to generate information that can assist in decision making regarding anthropogenic development in an area (e.g., environmental and ecological impact assessments) (Loftie-Eaton 2015; Harrison 2020; Rose
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et al. 2020; SABAP2 2021a). SAPAP is especially valuable when used for examining changes in range, distribution and abundance of common species because the sightings of such species are more verifiable as compared to rare species. There has been a perceived increase of Spotted Thick- knee numbers across South Africa, and due to their commonality in many parts of the country, it is not difficult to dispute this perceived trend. However, Spotted Thick-knee have specific requirements for its nesting ecology. Therefore, it is thought to be more at risk of changes to its habitat and natural surroundings. SABAP allows for empirical analyses of Spotted Thick-knee distributions from SABAP1 to SABAP2, which would allow for improved understanding of the state of the current Spotted Thick-knee populations over South Africa.
Our study aimed to assess the Spotted Thick-knee's historical and present distributions across South Africa. Our study's objectives were to use SAPAB and QGIS as tools to examine and analyse the recorded data to determine possible changes in range, distribution and abundance of Spotted Thick-knees across South Africa. We hypothesised significant changes in Spotted Thick- knee range and distribution and predicted an overall decrease in abundance from SABAP2 compared with historical data recorded in SAPAB1. We predicted that these changes are consequences of urbanisation and anthropogenic activity, leading to decreasing natural habitat for Spotted Thick-knees.
2.3 Methods