CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 T HEORETICAL F RAMEWORK
3.1.2 Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
Kolb’s theory (1984) states that in order to become an effective learner, a person has to respect and follow a process or stages in a cycle which draws on different learning styles in relation to thinking, feeling, perceiving and behaving appropriately (Kuk & Holst, 2018). A person must recognise new information and reflect on the possible influence it might have on certain aspects of their life. This entails incorporating the information based on a person’s prior experiences and knowledge. Learning takes place when we reflect on our experiences which, in turn, are transformed into abstract concepts, providing new meaning to actions that can be actively experimented with. Kolb’s model is concerned with a holistic understanding of learning of complex events (Keyes, 2002) which is distinguished from cognitive
approaches. Kolb refers to this kind of learning as holistic because concrete emotional experiences and reflection are integrated. Learning is assumed to be more active and
permanent when it is real and based on individual experience and followed up with a thought process about this experience. Learning is defined as the gaining of abstract concepts that can be practised in everyday life (Kolb, 1984).
What this means is that an individual can acquire new knowledge and skills by engaging in concrete experiences, reflective observations, abstract conceptualising followed by active experimenting (Kolb, 2005). All these stages are part of the experiential learning experience (Kolb, 1984). Experience is important in the learning process because it is based on direct experiences, activity and acting (Odendaal, 2018). Experiential learning happens when consciously chosen experiences are reinforced by reflection, critical analysis and synthesis.
Experiences are planned and require the learner to take initiative, make decisions, and hold themselves accountable for the outcomes. Reflection is a crucial part of experiential learning as it turns experience into learning (Boud et al., 1985; Goulet et al., 2016). Reflection is a form of individual and subjective response to experiences when human beings recall, think and evaluate experiences. Reflection is part of human development. However, only conscious reflection leads to learning (Boud et al., 1985). This occurs when the learner remembers concrete situations and is able to connect these with thoughts as well as evaluating the experience with the intention of integrating it into existing knowledge (Tutticci, 2017).
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Experiential learning is a process of conscious learning from experience that improves practice. Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle brings the dimensions of social learning and change into adult learning for a person, organization and institution/society in a cycle of action and reflection. In this theory, learning occurs in a four-stage cyclical process. An individual or groups must participate in each stage of the cycle in order to successfully learn from their experience. Figure 3.1 illustrates how learning occurs through a cyclical process between action and reflection and involves four steps.
Source: From Experiential Learning by Kolb, 1984, Prentice Hall
Kolb (2005) defines concrete experience as the first step whereby the learner acquires new knowledge and tries to attach meaning to it based on the experience that they have. This is followed by reflective observation where the learner analyses and reflects on the new experience and tries to make sense of it. This is the start of the process of transforming an experience. After this is abstract conceptualisation. According to Kolb (2005), during the reflective process, the learner generates a new idea of the experience that is transformed into an abstract concept by analysing it, making assumptions, and generalizing it. This is
associated with thinking abilities. Lastly, active experimentation occurs, where the learner strategizes and tries to use what is learnt and then applies the new knowledge to different situations and is able to make decisions based on assumptions. This cycle represents a
combined learning process through thinking, feeling, perceiving and later changing behaviour (Kolb & Kolb, 2005).
Figure 3.1: Experiential Learning Cycle
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However, it must be noted that the learning cycle should be seen as a continuous spiral. It can start in any of these four steps (Kolb & Fry, 1975). Thus, learning does not end but is a recurring lifelong cycle, and not a linear process of exchange between the learner’s internal world and the external world (Kolb, 2005).
3.1.2.1 Criticism of Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory
Kolb’s experiential learning theory has attracted criticism from various angles of scholarship including feminism, cognitivism, psychoanalytics, and adult education. Although criticised for having poor reliability and validity (Coffield, 2004), it remains influential and critical, particularly in the field of adult learning (Odendaal, 2018). In order to learn, one needs to experience by doing, reflecting, deliberating and acting in the same sequence as Kolb’s cycle.
From the feminist perspective, the model is criticised for its failure to grasp more intricate relationships between knowledge and the learning process (Odendaal, 2018). Some feminists critique “reflection” as an intellectual and cognitive activity that is not as rational and
controlled as it appears to be. Michelson (1996) argues that reflection does not consider gender and power relations.
Furthermore, Kolb’s experiential learning model does not sufficiently address different cultural conditions and experiences (Smith, 2015). From the feminist point of view,
knowledge is not explored in-depth. Instead, it stresses the production and transformation of knowledge through realising an experience. It is also unable to address and explain issues such as non-response in the learning process (Cherry, 2019). The theory is good at analysing how learning happens in individuals but it says little about how learning takes place in social groups. This is significant to me because it is critical to understand how a person’s interaction with a larger group affects the experiential learning process as well as non-learning.
The psychoanalytic perspective does not align with Kolb’s view. Lundgren et al. (2017) argue that cognitive reflection does not give a holistic understanding of the role of desires in experience and it does not account for what happens unconsciously or whether the learner is not benefitting during the learning process, nor does it recognise internal conflicts to learning.
Rogers (1996) argues that Kolb’s learning cycle has limitations in relation to adult education because it does not include goals, purposes, objectives, choices and decision-making which are all important elements of the learning cycle. From an informal education perspective, Kolb’s model is criticised for its inadequate attention to the reflection process (Boud et al.,
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1983). Jarvis (1987) argues that insufficient studies were tested or explored with this model, resulting in weak empirical support.
Tennant (1997, p.92) claims that Kolb’s learning style inventory “has no capacity to measure the degree of integration of learning styles”, while McLeod (2017) argues that Kolb’s
learning cycle has different processes that could take place at the same time, while some learning steps could be left out entirely. Kolb’s work and the critiques of it have been used by scholars as a departure point for new ideas. For example, Jarvis (2006) develops his own experiential model which focuses on adult learning or andragogy, rather than pedagogy which is the focus of Kolb’s theory. Adults are interested in concrete learning situations which could assist them to solve challenges they encounter in their everyday lives.