CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.4 Planning and implementing a Non-Revenue Water strategy
2.4.8 Maintaining the strategy
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Farley (2003) argues that Figure 2.8 above demonstrates the outcome of operating practices on real losses, which will decrease when more efficient operating practices are implemented, and this is the basis for developing leakage management strategy, and that the difference between the Unavoidable Real Losses (UARL) in the small rectangle and the Current Annual Real Losses (CARL) in the biger rectangle is the potentially recoverable Real Losses.
McKenzie, Buckle, Wegelin, and Meyer (2002) established a system of performance comparison which can be used by WSAs to measure its own success following the outlining of a leakage strategy, and it also allows inter-company and inter-country comparisons. This performance measure is called international leakage index (ILI), and is calculated using the ratio of current annual real losses to unavoidable annual real losses.
35 2.4.8.1 Customer metering policy
Farley (2003) established that most countries are using some form of household metering or other charging structure for their consumers, but with the developing countries, most of them set low tariffs or flat rates to cater for low income earners or indigent consumers in order to maintain health and hygiene. However, it does seem to become the expected trend and it is much politicised, especially during local elections.
In the Middle East and North Africa their tariff structure was structured in such a way that commercial customers pay less for fresh water which made it difficult for the water utility to persuade them from coming with other alternatives, and they recommended an increase in the tariffs in order to reduce the use of fresh water, and this would make irrigation with recycled wastewater more economically attractive (Abu-Madi & Al-Sa’ed, 2009).
According to Farley (2003:17) there are major dissadvantages for the WSAs that allow a zero or lower tariff structure while not charging an economic rate for water, that is:
“it does not encourage sensible use
it does not encourage the mending of customer leaks
the company has no incentive to install an active metering and meter replacement policy
insufficient revenue is generated to provide a sustainable operation, maintenance and repair programme often, even on low tariffs, customers (both household and non-household) will vandalise or by-pass meters to save paying. Usually a review of a company's customer metering policy and tariff structure is included in the strategy development procedure. Correcting the metering policy and tariff structure policy, in conjunction with other water conservation initiatives, is a major step towards reducing customer demand.
To overcome adverse reaction from customers and to assuage political sensitivities, a pilot study could be designed within a water loss study programme. The study would include reading a sample of customer meters to check:
how many meters are working and how many have stopped
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which of those not working are due to meter malfunction, deliberate vandalism, or bypassed (illegal connection)
how accurate they are (under-registration)”.
The accuracy of readings is normally verified by installing a “check” meter downstream of the main meter, and it is recommended that a class C or D meters be installed in order to meet the international standards and to maintain the high accuracy of readings, even in very low flows circumstances (Farley, 2003).
An infrastructure replacement program should be implemented regularly for the non- household customers to encourage water conservation practices, continuous revenue enhancement, and it is worth noting that some organisations even have a policy where bulk meters are changed every five years (Farley, 2003).
2.4.8.2 Technology transfer and training
In order for the leak management strategy to be sustainable, employees need to be trained, motivated, skilled on techniques and technology of leakage management and in operating and maintaining the whole water distribution network (Farley, 2003).
There is a need for an emphasis to be made on the introduction of leakage management programme at all levels in an organisation to address the structure of the programme, the steps in its design and implementation, and the support should be from the senior management to the operating level (Farley, 2003).
Farley (2003) argues that a sustainable training programme should include the following;
awareness seminars for senior staff and decision makers (and also to raise public awareness)
training workshops for engineering and technical staff
continuous practical training for operations staff.
2.4.8.3 Operation and Maintenance
Operations and Maintenance (O & M) is very critical in every water distribution network, borehole, hand pumps, technological equipment, infrastructure and institutional development, in order to maintain the sustainability of the network system,
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O & M requires forward planning and transfer of technology in all the stages from installation of plant and equipment, during the training of operators and handing over phase, to routine operation and upkeep (Farley, 2003).
The main concern for Doyle, Hennelly, and McEntee (2003) in his argument is that maintenance is a long term function and responsibility for municipalities and they become reluctant to take over the maintenance long term commitment. The O & M processes should be discussed and finalised during the installation phase, and the selection of equipment, spares purchasing and repair procedures should be formalised, and an operating manual created based on the best practices in operating and maintaining the system (Farley, 2003).