Chapter 2 Literature review part one: theoretical framework
2.38 Managing diversity
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been fully processed. The use of visualisation prior to actual return to work can be extremely helpful to flush out some of these triggers and deal with them. Walking along a corridor, going into a meeting room or coming face to face with a person associated with the harassment can reactivate high levels of distress. It is helpful to practice the return to work through the medium of visualisation prior to actual return.
This virtual return to work can identify areas of counselling or practical steps that need to be undertaken if return is to be successful. Even if the initial return is successful, it is important to arrange for the counselling to continue during the first few weeks following the return to work in order to deal with the unexpected responses to the working environment (Einarsen et al., 2010:394).
Bullying involves complex human interactions, some of which are open and observable, while others are hidden and frequently denied. Harassment and harassment drama are inevitable consequences of a cultural and personal failure to accept and understand the shadow side of our nature. The process of splitting in which people are labelled as victims, targets, bullies or perpetrators adds to the problem by failing to recognise that within every human being is the potential of both good and evil, kindness and cruelty. At its best, counselling can contain the anxiety and hurt of all those in the harassment drama and with wisdom and patience create a place of learning where the shadow can meet the light (Einarsen et al., 2010:394).
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According to Adler (1986:229), any form of effective diversity management has to start with a conscious effort to recognise cultural diversity without judging it and, in this way, perceive differences where differences exist. There also has to be a realisation that cultural diversity has advantages and disadvantages. According to Adler (1986), disadvantages occur most frequently when convergence is needed and employees are required to act and think in similar ways. Communication (converging on similar meanings) and integration (converging on similar actions) become more difficult in situations of diversity.
Advantages are gained in divergent processes where diversity helps in starting new projects, creating new ideas, developing new strategic plans or actions and assessing new trends. Multiple perspectives help in avoiding possible groupthink.
Through diversity creativity, flexibility and problem solving are improved.
It is possible to manage cultural diversity so that it becomes a resource rather than a problem. A first step in this process of managing diversity is to educate managers about diversity.
2.38.1 Educating managers about diversity
Kogod (1992:242) states that managers should be made aware of diversity through education. Some guidelines in this regard are understand that cultural differences exist and acknowledge one’s own stereotypes and assumptions. Develop consciousness and acceptance of your own cultural background and style. Learn about other cultures and be flexible, try to adapt to the style of the person with whom you are communicating. Provide employees who are different with what they need to succeed, e.g. access to information and meaningful relationships with people with power. Treat people equitably but not informally and encourage constructive communication about differences.
These guidelines should be reinforced by proper training programmes on diversity and its management. The training should increase understanding managers have of diversity and help them to deal with diversity in their actions.
2.38.2 Approaches to managing diversity
There are various options to deal managerially with diversity. A first step is to realise that there are different organisational responses to diversity and, depending on the
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dominant response, management's dealings with diversity might differ (Schwella, Burger, Fox & Muller, 1996:326).
(a) Organisational responses to diversity
Adler (1986:232) identifies the possible responses to diversity in the workplace as parochial, ethnocentric and synergistic.
Members of parochial organisations do not perceive cultural diversity or its impact on the organisation. Members believe their way is the only way to manage and organise. A second response to diversity is ethnocentric where diversity is recognised, but seen to cause only problems. The ways of others are seen as inferior and differences are believed to be the cause of problems.
In a synergistic response organisation members believe that 'our way and their way differ, but neither is inherently superior to the other'. Combining responses and efforts constructively to accrue the benefits of diversity through appropriate management strategies is best. A cultural synergy requires organisational policies and practices based on, but not limited to, the cultural patterns of individual organisational members and clients. Synergistic organisations create new forms of management transcending the individual cultures of their members.
Several assumptions underpin the synergistic approach. The first assumption is born of a realisation that the homogenous 'melting pot' is a myth. Synergism espouses the belief that heterogeneity is a fact and that there are many culturally different groups in society maintaining its distinctiveness.
Synergy also assumes that similarities and differences are of equal importance. The parochial idea of 'our way is best' is refuted and it is accepted that there are many equally good ways of living and working (Schwella et al., 1996:327). Cultural synergy assumes equifinality by which there are many equivalent ways to reach a goal (finality) and that there is no one superior way. This is linked to the assumption of cultural contingency that assumes there are many equally good ways to reach a goal.
(b) A strategic management approach to managing diversity
Kogod (1992:245) provides an approach to managing diversity that is analogous to a strategic management methodology. The author's approach requires that: (1) the
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organisational climate has to be analysed and enhanced and (2) a vision, strategies and action plans be created and implemented.
By analysing and enhancing the organisational climate, the present organisational attitude to diversity is assessed. Attempts are made to influence this climate towards recognising and supporting cultural differences. Communication, for example, is seen and analysed from a multicultural perspective and people are made aware of the importance of diversity and the need to treat every employee with respect.
Barriers to accepting and managing diversity are identified and dealt with constructively.
A vision of where the organisation could and should be in terms of present reality of diversity has to be developed. This vision then has to be compared with the present reality in respect of diversity. Any gap or disparity has to be addressed by strategies.
Strategies can be at the level of the system, task and person. System-level strategies may include consultants as culture brokers linking diverse cultural groups, developing success stories and heroes of the diversity management process, creating incentives for managing diversity effectively, celebrating events that honour diversity and instituting creative rewards and recognition of good practice (Schwella et al., 1996:329).
At the task level, strategies can be designed to develop job aids accommodating cultural differences and systems envisioning results. At a personal level, strategies of negotiation and conflict resolution need attention. After designing strategies, they have to be implemented through proper action plans. Action plans must state what tasks have to be performed, who will do them and by when. Possible obstacles should also be contemplated and actions designed to remove them or reduce their possible impact.
During this whole process, communication is important. Communication should be enhanced by active listening, proper evaluation and negotiation and accommodation.
Finally, the whole process has to be evaluated. If necessary, corrective steps must be taken to keep the process on track (Schwella et al., 1996:329).
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2.38.3 Individual mindsets and organisational imperatives for successfully managing diversity
Gardenswartz and Rowe (n.d.: 427-434) provide some individual and organisational guidelines in dealing with diversity as a person and manager.
At the individual level Gardenswartz and Rowe (n.d.:428) suggest the following as central ideas.
Diversity is not about them but it is about us. Knowing the cultural values, norm, religion and practices of other is important but not central. Of central importance is to come to terms with oneself and understand ones reactions to diversity. The individuals and institutions are faced with issue of change and perceived losses. It must be realised that a changing workforce presents fears to staff in terms of how it will affect their ways and job opportunities. The positive aspect of the change should be identified and shared while the negatives should be perceived, noted and actively managed. HEI should create a more participative power structure. This requires enhancing the ideas and practice that all staff have a right to any job despite race, gender, age, religion or background. Diversity requires individuals to let go of tried and tested techniques. A repertoire of behaviours is need for which appropriate choices have to be made under different circumstances.
Individuals should realise that all staff view the world from their perspective and tolerances of doing things differently is needed. One should emphasise common experiences that unify, rather than differences that divide and staff have shared experiences from long time ago. These include death, marriage, birth, growth, the need to feel connected and the desire to be engaged in meaning work. If individuals consider these similarities makes it is easier to accept that they are more alike than different. Individuals should demonstrate values through actions and not words, and lip service to diversity will be self-defeating and costly in terms of trust and employee commitment. The HEI and staff should remember that diversity includes everyone.
To regain the competitive edge and create kinder, gentler and more successful and productive HEI, power has to be shared. All stakeholders has to be represented in the decision-making process. Previous disadvantaged groups who point fingers and grind axes move the process backwards as do previously advantaged groups who see everything as reverse discrimination and resist everything but tokenism.
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Diversity is about trying to extend empathy and understanding across the spectrum.
If this is not done, individuals will become polarised and adversaries created and everyone will lose and the institution’s performance and success will be affected (Gardenswartz & Rowe, n.d.:431).
The following organisational imperatives are suggested by Gardenswartz & Rowe (n.d.:431).
Executive management should show commitment and diversity management programmes demand the support of the institution’s highest levels. This support should include modelling by executive management and providing resources for the programme. Accountability should be enforced at the highest level. Executive management should seek involvement and commitment from the bottom up. All employees from entry level to the most senior staff members should be provided training in dealing with diversity and this call for a long-term, reinforced and sustained effort.
A wide array of management techniques that work cross-culturally should be taught.
In order to be effective, managers should treat all employee equitably. Individuals should respect and honour different cultural norms. Diversity should be integrated into the fabric of the HEI. Diversity should be introduced to systemic and structural facets of the HEI such as recruitment, career development, communication and reward system. Successful diversity management requires cultural changes that take vision, mission values and tolerance. The HEI should set benchmarks to note and celebrate if they are achieved.
Demographic reality should be accepted. Because of globalisation, isolation cannot be sustained and diversity is the reality everywhere and offers great opportunities and challenges. Accepting reality will enable the HEI and staff to deal with diversity more productively. One live in the world of the information age and technology, and change is so rapid that everything seems fluid and individuals and HEIs have to be flexible if they are to cope.
One need to be willing to pierce the power and work through the discomfort, as diversity is about sharing power. This is a tough issue to deal with, as it often creates anxiety and frustration and essential changes to the power configuration can be a
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battle, but the changes provide opportunities to invest in staff. Honesty with oneself about changes and reaction to them is paramount. Realising one’s own situation helps individuals deal with their fears, anger, trends and frustrations and from that basis relating more authentically to others is possible. Showing and feeling kindness and respect to people will usual elicit a similar response from them. Goodwill is emphasised by the realisation that success depends on one’s ability to live and work with others.
Combining these individual mindset and organisational imperatives will contribute to a success dynamic of managing diversity in the HEI.
Diversity is becoming prevalent worldwide and managers and employees should be made aware of and educated about it. There are advantages and disadvantages in diversity and HEIs must handle it synergistically. A strategic management approach can also be used in managing diversity and individual mindsets. Proper organisational attitudes and actions contribute to managing diversity productivity.
2.39 Summary
Individual performance in organisations has traditionally centred on the evaluation of performance and allocation of rewards. Organisations are increasingly recognising that planning and enabling individual performance have a critical effect on organisational performance. Contemporary approaches to performance in the workplace emphasise the importance of a shared view of expected performance between manager and employee. Many organisations are grappling with a process of self-renewal as a result of constant pressure for enhanced competitiveness.
However, comparatively few have simultaneously overhauled their outdated performance management systems. Strategic success lies in focusing attention at all levels on key business imperatives, which can be achieved through effective performance management (Bennett & Minty, 1999:58).
This part discussed HR policies, performance, productivity, motivation and there role of counselling in workplace harassment. It has explored the literature on HR, formulation and implementation of human resources policies. Emotional intelligence and the relationship between motivation, job satisfaction and money is also explored.
This part has also examined productivity, leading public human resources and
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transformational leadership in the context of the study. Finally, employee evaluation, investigating a harassment complaint, guidelines for counselling, an integrated model of counselling, emotional competence, harassment drama and managing diversity are discussed.
Part four of the literature review discusses literature on the formulation of a systemic model on workplace harassment. Part four also discusses the formulation of a systemic model on workplace harassment by evaluating best practices in dealing with workplace harassment. This part discusses the role of policies, common mistakes in policy making and delivery, and monitoring and review. The part also examines literature on investigating complaints of harassment, investigative responsibilities, investigation process and barriers to a fair hearing.
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