LITERATURE REVIEW:A GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRANING
2.2 MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN EUROPE
Europe is a continent incorporating numerous countries such as Norway, Greece, and Spain, with rich maritime histories and a culture extending back for many centuries. The maritime industry fuels its economy through trade with countries as far away as Brazil, South Africa, and Japan.
According to Albayrak and Ziarati (2012), the European Council requires the complete alignment by EU member states with the union’s maritime legislation on areas of safety and non-safety, so as to increase the performance of maritime safety administrative institutions in the region, advancing maritime safety.
The European Union’s (EU) strategy with regard to MET stresses that states ought to learn from one another by working collectively in the regions. Education and training policies ensure that knowledge and innovation are a collective synergy, which is the EU’s most vital asset (Albayrak and Ziarati, 2009). Thus, “innovation projects aim to improve the quality of training systems through the development and transfer of innovative policies, contents, methods and procedures within vocational education and training” (Albayrak and Ziarati, 2009:4).
The growth of the maritime industry in Europe has presented problems for the industry. It is plagued by the slow and decreasing number of youth entering the industry. Walczak (2008) further identifies the questions sought to address by the EU’s Green Paper on the continent’s further Maritime Policy, which are:
wages and safety be combined with sectoral competitiveness and how can the quality of education, training and certification be assured” (Walczak, 2008:430).
MET institutions in Western Europe are experiencing a declining number of students pursuing maritime studies (Pallis and Ng, 2011; Ng, Koo and Pallis, 2011; Lobrigo and Pawlik, 2014). The maritime industry therefore needs to sustain the existence of nautical studies programmes at MET centres, which otherwise are threatened by extinction in some regions, according to Pawlik (2014).
The main issue is to entice a certain number of students into nautical studies programmes. This may be addressed by market expansion. Such a situation implies internationalization of MET programmes to cater to international prospective students, in which demographic trends make the seafaring profession unappealing to the domestic market (Lobrigo and Pawlik, 2014).
• United Kingdom (UK)
The United Kingdom (UK) is an island country which relies heavily on the ocean and its ports.
About 95% of all its imports and exports are port serviced (SAMSA, 2011). According to SAMSA (2011), the UK is seen as a leader in terms of MET and is one of the major world centres for shipping. As with South Africa, the United Kingdom (UK) has a number of stakeholders involved in the maritime industry and MET research. In the UK, active research is carried out by various institutions such as the Department of Transport, the British Chamber of Commerce, the Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMC), and the International Shipping Federation (ISF).
Skills are developed at the UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) (SAMSA, 2011).
Although many institutions are involved in the maritime industry and MET research, unlike in South Africa, all “skills data is recorded and kept centrally” (SAMSA, 2011: 203). What this means is that since ‘maritime skills data’ is centralised, the effective and efficient use of it is guaranteed.
This enables a clear tracking and understanding of the skills base in the industry.
Table 2.1: Trends in the UK’s Maritime Industry Trends
Maritime labour database Inaccuracy of the data in terms of ‘quantitative’ numbers of the seafaring pool has proved problematic.
Maritime industry awareness Private sector support. This came in the form of UK-based ship owners developing and coordinating a set of initiatives directed at marketing careers in the maritime sector, and growing the number of merchant ship officers (SAMSA, 2011).
Public Private Partnership The UK government’s approach to the country’s maritime industry has included conducting an enquiry into actions required by government to support the industry.
Source: Compiled by author using data from SAMSA (2011)
According to SAMSA (2011), problems such as a shortage of suitably qualified seafarers, a gap in the demand and supply, limited marketing of the industry in terms of maritime career awareness directed at youth and MET constraints. These collectively mean that although much research has been done in the industry, inaccuracy of the data in terms of ‘quantitative’ numbers of the seafaring pool have proven a problem (SAMSA, 2011).
According to Beer and Meethan (2007: 473), in the United Kingdom, “the majority of skills gaps occur in the workforce of the equipment and services provider and design and construction sub- sectors”. Furthermore, business and management and engineering skills gaps are particular problems common to both sub-sectors. So too are seamanship and boat skills; while in the operations and shipping sub-sector, the introduction of new technology, both on board ships, and vessels and in port operations, has created skills gaps in information technology (IT). Beer and Meethan (2007) further identify that businesses in Cornwall reported that the greatest gaps are in IT, engineering, painting and finishing, welding and fabrication, and business management skills.
The UK government and the private sector have responded to the above-mentioned problems in a
of people entering the maritime industry, especially the youth. This has taken the form of increasing the awareness of careers at sea; and widening access to training opportunities (SAMSA, 2011).
The UK government’s approach to the country’s maritime industry is unique in that the government has approached the industry by conducting an enquiry into actions required by government to support the industry. Therefore linkages were identified to uncover the contribution shipping can make in achieving the aims of government transport policy (SAMSA, 2011). This took the form of “determining the levels of manpower and skills shortages, establishing the importance of shore-based shipping services and determining how employment can be promoted”
(SAMSA, 2011: 204).
• Scotland
The country, which is part of the UK experiences similar challenges to rest of the state around recruiting youth into the maritime industry, especially sea-going officer trainees (cadets).
Nevertheless, in the recent past, the country has taken active measures to inspire interest in careers at sea. This has had a positive effect: the number of youth taking up MET has increased (the Mackinnon Partnership, 2008).
In Scotland, further education and higher education institutions are dominated by specialised departments providing an expansive range of MET programmes, varying from lengthy to short courses, although limited to such as naval architecture and marine biology in some universities (the Mackinnon Partnership, 2008). According to the Mackinnon Partnership (2008), many Scottish maritime employers in the industry source education and training for employees outside the country, such as MET institutions in England. This goes to their concern that, for example, officer trainees were not taught sufficient practical skills.
MET tends to be rurally based; however, it attracts not only rural maritime employees to their specialised programmes, but also people internationally (the Mackinnon Partnership, 2008).
Owing to low salaries in lecturing, there has been a shortage of human resources, specifically suitably qualified MET instructors; shore-based jobs in the growing maritime industry and related sectors are more attractive, pay better, and are plentiful (the Mackinnon Partnership, 2008). As a
result, MET institutions are gradually relying on international teaching staff from abroad to take up teaching posts (vacancies).
Table 2.2: Issues in Scotland’s Maritime Education and Training Issues
Lack of MET facilities The availability of space, and high-quality training simulators within Scotland, is limited. There is also a need to upgrade current training simulators to be on a par with technological advances.
Inability to recruit sufficient qualified and experienced lecturers
This is owing to industry competition and the limited number of experienced lecturers.
Fragmented training In some sectors, employers are at a disadvantage. Merchant navy training does not properly recognise the needs of various sub-sectors, such as workboats, tugs, and the off-shore sector. Much training, and the MCA requirements on which it is based, rely on a rather traditional model of how ships work, which is drawn from the deep- sea merchant navy, and does not fit the reality of many sub-sectors.
Lack of transferability of qualifications
Scotland frustrates several employers from the various sectors:
employers are frustrated because the MCA does not recognise key qualifications issued by others. This implies additional costs for employers if they retrain people who have completed qualifications not recognised. The issue is one commonly raised, and it relates to the whole of the UK, not only to Scotland.
Lack of funds Government funding favours training rather than education qualifications (the opposite of the English model) and collaboration between the different parties enables them to maximise the funds available through a collaborative arrangement. It is, however, an
lack of funding for SVQs. Shortages are addressed, and gaps plugged by recruiting East Europeans.
Source: Compiled by author using information from the Mackinnon Partnership (2008)
In Scotland, some maritime sectors want training designed with their particular needs in mind.
There is growing interest in off-shore maritime sectors, hence the need to see appropriate training developed parallel with the needs of the growing maritime industry and sectors therein (The Mackinnon Partnership, 2008). Below Table: 2.3 presents current trends in Scotland pertaining to MET.
Table 2.3: Trends in Scotland’s Maritime Education and Training Trends
MET partnerships Partnerships promoted by maritime business have been created in MET programmes and innovations in MET, such as E-learning
The use of foreign labour
In sectors such as Emergency Response and Rescue Vehicle Association (ERRVA), jobs are less appealing, Operators are therefore reluctant to spend money on training staff; hence, increasingly, therefore, employees come from Eastern Europe. They are reported to have good English and to be better trained than British colleagues.
In-house training In-house training by port authorities covering statutory requirements are deemed valuable in bridging skills gaps, by partnering with colleges and other companies. This has produced a good deal of competence matrices. This is seen as a means of saving money rather than per the traditional way of training.
There is no work-time lost owing to training provision. For example, Aberdeen Harbour Board has bought its own training simulator as there was no satisfactory alternative locally.
Source: Compiled by author using information from the Mackinnon Partnership (2008)
• Greece
Greece has a very rich maritime culture. It is one of the oldest seafaring countries in the world and the maritime industry has always been an integral part of its economy (Mthuli, 2014). It has a very structured MET approach (SAMSA, 2011).
Table 2.4: Trends in Greece’s Maritime Education and Training
Trend Description
Training institutions
There are various marine academies in Greece for both deck officers and engineers. All these academies fall under the supervision of the Ministry of Mercantile Marine.
Funding Funding for training is provided by the Greek government, with mandatory contributions from owners of vessels registered in Greece and from the European Union.
Tuition fees No fees are charged for training, accommodation, or subsistence, as all maritime training is sponsored as set out above.
Post training There are two government funded centres for post training, which run professional support courses and professional development programmes for seafaring officers. There are also some private institutions that run courses.
Source: Compiled by author using information from SAMSA (2011: 210).
• Poland
Poland is an eastern European country on the Baltic Sea. Like its many European counterparts, Poland has a very rich maritime heritage. The country enjoys a rich maritime industry, with its strong position within the global maritime market, because of its capability of building high quality ships of various kinds (Poland at Sea - Maritime Magazine, 2012: 3). The country further has vast experience in supplying the global maritime labour market (Walczak, 2008).
Poland has not been immune to the broader challenges facing Europe’s maritime industry, such as
in Poland is not as intense as in Western Europe. Nevertheless, the country is faced with issues such as high unemployment, especially amongst the youth. There is also a drop in the number of students pursuing maritime courses although not noticeable at maritime universities.
Poland has three MET higher education institutions, three post-high maritime schools, twelve sectoral secondary schools, and another five higher education institutions that strengthen maritime education. This ensures a steady supply of maritime professionals in the country (Walczak, 2008).
The state of MET in Poland is of European standard, the institutions and its facilities being well equipped, with both teaching and research staff and educational structures satisfactory and in line with the Bologna Declaration. However, Poland still remains committed to coordinating MET so as to meet both the national and regional EU needs (Walczak, 2008).
Summary
In conclusion, the literature above has shown that Europe has a strong maritime history and culture.
Its economy and member states depend on trade and the maritime industry for its prosperity. Its maritime industry is well regulated and maritime safety in Europe is vital. There is easy access to MET entry and there is a diverse scope of MET provision. With the EU member states there is government centralised certification of MET qualification so as to meet STCW requirements.
Europe’s maritime industry has problems such as labour-market supply and demand gaps brought about by the decreasing number of youth taking MET courses. This threatens its maritime industry.
The limited marketing of the maritime industry is a result of limited maritime career awareness on the maritime services side in the UK, and the introduction of new technology. However, government has taken an active role in addressing the predicament, by approaching the maritime industry. As a result, MET partnerships in the EU to overcome the problems have been initiated.
A public-private partnership driven by government has been created. This involves bringing in domestic shipping companies to address the skills needs in the EU region, so as to achieve the EU’s Maritime Transport Policy. However, at MET institutional level, problems such as the shortage of qualified staff have been brought about by the inability to attract and retain MET staff.
Low salary packages at MET continue to threaten the maritime industry in countries such as Scotland and the UK.