FACTORS INFLUENCING MARITIME EDUCATION AND TRAINING GLOBALLY
4.5 TECHNOLOGY
the education and training in maritime programmes and courses received by the seafarers involved in accidents (Brady, 2008; Ziarati and Ziarati, 2010). The quality of MET is pivotal in the growth, safety, and security of the global maritime industry. Despite factors such as technological advances in the industry and MET institutional resources, MET has tended to compromise quality, which leads to accidents and other human error in the maritime industry. The maritime industry has also considered the Human Factor (HF), “as a main contributing factor to accidents, in common with other industrial sectors” (Schröder-Hinrichs et al., 2013:224). However, Berg (2013:344) affirms that, “regulations and systems have not achieved the desired effects in averting maritime accidents which are a result of human errors and account for 80 percent of those occurring worldwide.”
Thus, according to (Gamil, 2008:2), “the maritime industry needs to upgrade their human resources to properly implement international legislation and keep pace with advanced technologies on board vessels as well as in their design and operation.” According to Baylon and Santos (2011:34), “it is pivotal that seafarers be well-educated and trained, manage risks, be able to follow orders, solve problems, and must be emotionally happy and psychologically stable to ensure secure, safe, clean and efficient operations for safety of life at sea”. The role of theMET is central to boosting sea safety (Davy and Noh, 2011) and security.
changing technology and advancements, such as the maritime industry in this case, to remain relevant and employable in the future, will need to invest in funding their lifelong learning. A greater role is played by technology in this regard (Bloor et al., 2000 and Grey, 2003).
In the context of achieving safety in the maritime industry, Mazzarino and Maggi (2000) observed that the development of new technologies stressed the need for quality standards to be applied within MET institutions. Such has a ripple effect on the industry. Couper (2000) argues that the use of technology has reduced the size of a ship’s crew, promoting a concomitant low morale among seafarers. To date this, according to Caesar, Cahoon and Fei (2014) has undermined strategies directed at improving retention. This might lead to a decision to leave work on-board a vessel, pursuing landside opportunities. Thus the provision of MET is systematic, involving a number of factors influencing one another’s outcomes. For example, although technological advancements have resulted in reduced crew sizes, it has also increased the cost of MET provision.
However, the human element is always seen as the most vital of these factors.
Seafarers and port operators must be trained on how to manage and operate a ship equipped with the latest innovations of automation. New technologies change the perception of education and training, the way people think, how people communicate, and the students’ demands (Gamil, 2008:10). Information technology (IT) is a term commonly used to cover the range of technologies used for the transfer of information, in particular per computers, digital electronics, and telecommunications (Crystal, 1990). As technology improves on ships and for port operation, so too must the MET rise to the challenge in its institutions. Cweilewica and Lisoski (2012), in this regard, stress the necessity of reducing the cost of MET brought about by technology. These researchers see this as necessary for maintaining a sizeable number of MET students in Polish MET institutions.
Technology has been identified as important for major development within the maritime industry, specifically in the shipping-industry sector. A hindrance to maritime countries is either (i) not staying abreast of technology, introducing technological advancements to the country’s maritime activities, or (ii) not upskilling maritime sector professionals to use new technology within the
Development/UNCTAD, 2009). Technology has played a vital role in the development of the maritime industry over the past century, yet has not been felt more in the shipping and related industry than over the past three decades.
The rapid development in the field of maritime technology has thus had a strong influence on the maritime industry. As technological developments continue, Robinson (2007) surmises that this has created an enabling environment for innovation in global shipping. Such developments, however, have demanded capitalising on potential. This will by most standards, require new ways of thinking, working, and a new framework from which to view the world. Technology has not been a key factor in maritime accidents; however, its use and application has played and will continue to play a crucial role in the provision of MET systems.
Development cannot be achieved in the maritime industry by reflecting only on current procedures, such as internal processes. Rather, there ought to be a wider outlook in examining best ways of taking action, so as to determine the needed standard in applying technology and the role MET institutions can play in this regard. Thus, the role of globalisation, maritime safety and security issues, and technological advances, according to Basan, Hanzu and Arsenie (2007), necessitates the presence of maritime-related technology such as IT, inter alia, in the respective MET programmes. From the 90s, ships and port design have rapidly changed.
Between 1995 and the present date, the maritime industry has undergone a swift evolution, notably in the design of vessels and the equipment used on board, specifically the propulsion systems and navigation. One incredibly vital advance has been automation in operating a ship, for example, the latest vessels, especially fuel and container carrying ships, are gradually becoming automated. This has resulted in two issues, the first being the inadequacy of existing human resources on ship influenced by seafarers’ education and training. If any aspects of automation cease to work due to failure, the crew, in most cases, are not trained to use substitute systems, and thus counter problems effectively (IMO Maritime Safety Committee/MSC 82, 2006; Ziarati, 2006 cited in Ziarati, Demire and Albayrak, 2010:17). The second issue, as pronounced by the IMO MSC, is specifically that:
“The human operators seldom understand all the characteristics of automatic systems and these systems’ weaknesses and limitations which have now been found to be the main causes of accidents.
These reports concluded that there is a need to improve the content of all maritime training and that the knowledge, skills and understanding of automation should be included in the basic training”
(Ziarati, Demire and Albayrak, 2010:17).
Technological advances, such as the introduction of IT into navigational equipment, and ship- operation-supporting systems such as AIS (Automated Identification System), ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display Information System), IBS (Integrated Bridge System) or the introduction of an e- Navigation system, require inclusion of maritime-related IT technologies in respective MET programmes (Basan, Hanzu and Arsenie, 2007). An example of this is the new requirements for Chinese MET, which considers new technologies on board ships, the rate of growth of the shipping industry, tougher standards on maritime pollution prevention and safety, further functions of the human factor in technical operations, and flaws identified in the original conventions (Shickeng, 2009). Shickeng (2009: 2-3) essentially notes this trend as a “specialization, higher level maritime operations and wider coverage of knowledge and technologies of competency”.
On the one hand, these advanced technologies Shickeng (2009: 3) identifies include cutting-edge navigation tools, specialization and, “professionalization of transport technologies and pollution prevention technologies that are to be incorporated into seafarers competency standards.” On the other hand, Fazal (2010:32) maintains that, “as more information technologies are infused into the maritime environment it is becoming vital for today’s mariners be information competent”.
Technology advancements in industry and new STCW requirements call for constant MET curriculum redesign. Not only must MET institutions restructure their curriculum design; they must also have the necessary resources for acquiring new training technologies to complement changes in curriculum. An example of this is new technologies such as the “ Fast Time Simulation (FTS) which is a game engine room software which has a great potential for teaching and learning in the maritime training environment and for use on board of ships for development of prediction tools for maneuvering of ships and for training of safety and security elements” (Gluch, Kirchhoff and Felsenstein, 2010:20). Gluch, Kirchhoff and Felsenstein (2010), however, have no doubt that such advances will increase the number of hours devoted to education and training, not only for the theoretical education in the classroom, but also for the extensive use of simulators for
Sea training on board a ship plays a key role in the education and training of cadets; and such is mandatory for all seafarers of different types and ranks. However, Holland (1997) commented that these on-board training opportunities on vessels offered by companies in shipping had been drastically decreased. This is owing to commercial pressure in recent years and increasing levels of automation, making the nature and the quality of training on board significantly change for the worse.
The new methodology and technology in MET have, for example, a significant influence on the Chinese MET system and institutions. One of the key influencing factors is the wide utilization of multi-media for MET instruction, including distance education (DE) via Internet and email. Thus, computer-based training (CBT) and the use of simulators also play a prominent role in MET. The use of a radar and ARPA simulator for training was made mandatory by STCW95 (Chen, 2000:30).
The new maritime technology impacts on the safe operation and the more efficient maintenance of ships. IT provides data to support decision-making on ships and ports around the world. Thus, the full advantage of the latest IT developments in the shipping sector lies in the fact that the use of IT can increase the efficiency of shipping operations. IT can concomitantly reduce the time spent on labour-intensive work, therefore ensuring the safer navigation and operation of ships.
However, such technological advancements also present problems for MET institutions around the world because of the cost implications attached to technology. No training may be run effectively without the presence of all the necessary technical means of education: unfortunately, the training of seafarers is one of the most expensive (Alexandrov, 1999:4). However, Horck (2004) expresses that:
“…the industry should be focusing more on the human element rather than spending lot of money on bridge layout and increased automation” (Horck, 2004: 16).
Horck (2004) believes that the human contribution to the maritime industry plays a crucial role not only on board ships, but also in all shipping activities, directly influencing safety and security.
Thus, MET institutions must therefore become effective agents for the proper handling of advanced technologies (Lobrigo and Pawlik: 2014). Stan and Buzbuchi (2009: 353) aver that:
“…the role and function of the new simulators as part of the teaching process form the technological aspect of MET and quality cannot be obtained without new teaching methods and training procedures, where IT and simulators occupy an outstanding place”.
However, for example in the UK, the introduction of new technology, both on board ships and vessels and in port operations, has created skills gaps in IT (Beer and Meethan, 2007). The unavailability of high-quality training simulators within Scotland threatens its MET systems.
However, the issues of the role of technology on MET go beyond software upgrades, relating also to increasing hardware space. MET institutions in Scotland and around the world must upgrade training simulators to be aligned with technological advances such as those brought about by Global Maritime Distress and Safety Systems (the Mackinnon Partnership, 2008). The intense use of simulators is strongly advised by STCW. Simulators entail having well-designed scenarios, very experienced instructors, and adequate equipment. However, not all MET institutions have these sophisticated bridge and engine-room simulators. Those that have, sometimes have limited access to them (Ziarati et al., 2012). Gamil (2008) asserts that the advancement of technology in the maritime industry results in the need for upgrading MET instructors’ skills and knowledge; thus MET teachers are imperative to the development of education and training. Gamil (2008) further states that, however:
“Attracting, upgrading and the retention of competent MET instructors will raise the
skills of future human resources; this is a challenge in the present circumstances” (Gamil, 2008: 2).
Gamil (2008) also mentioned dissatisfaction by stakeholders with the current competency level of MET instructors (Gamil, 2008). Higher education institutions providing MET worldwide are responding to these requirements. In this regard, Zairati et al. (2012) alleges that:
“Europe needs to fully embrace by what is meant to create a MET system that is fit for purpose. Not all seafaring officers need to be university graduates and at the other end of spectrum we need seafarers with higher qualification beyond university diploma and degrees” (Ziarati et al., 2012:5).
Challenges to MET providers and those who use their services is not limited to regulations, technology, and the shortage of seafarers in Europe, but also to the quality of MET (Ziarati et al.,
an increase in technology such as automation and the ever-increasing emphasis on professionalism and management in the quality of operators of ship and ports. Those within the industry must be equipped with the best skills in operating new ship-based technology, safety management systems, and computers. They must possess an inherent will for self-development to be equal to the dynamism of the technological, economic and regulatory aspects of the industry (Fan Cun and Wei, 2002: 73).
Therefore, in the maritime industry, ships and equipment are merely as good as the individuals using them. As a result, the focus has also been on the standards of MET of the individuals. Since the 1980s the IMO has progressively addressed in its work the role played by people partaking in shipping (Gamil, 2008). Continuous amendments to the International Convention on STCW demand constant improvement of MET. The rapid advances of high-tech new ships and the extensive application of IT in shipping operations require the operators, equally on board and at MET institutions, to be appropriately well trained in computing methods. However, technology in teaching and learning requires high cost and enormous investment. Be this as it may, technology facilitates the ease of transferring knowledge and sustainable improvement in MET (Khan, 2014).
Such ease of transferring knowledge may be achieved, for example, per the introduction of E- learning by the STCW to improve MET and its quality. This is asserted by (Ziarati and Ziarati, 2012), who believes that, for distance access to material that can improve safety at sea, technological platforms in MET such as E-learning could be developed and make learning more user-centred. To date, E-learning platforms are being increasingly adopted by MET institutions as well as shipping companies, globally, to “provide courses and programmes to learners outside their local boundaries” (Fisher and Muirhead, 2005: 154).
The new technology allows and encourages MET institutions to use virtual and real simulation systems which the STCW strongly advises should be used to capacity. However, such use compels MET institutions to have sufficient equipment, very experienced teachers who are instructors, and well-designed training scenarios (Ziarati and Ziarati, 2012). These researchers assert that “it is recognised that not all MET institutions have sophisticated bridge and Engine-room simulators and those that do have some have limited access to them” (Ziarati and Ziarati, 2012:12).
input (Muirhead, 2004:141), and this is beyond the reach of many countries in Africa. Thus, there is an uneven distribution of resources such as technology, for example, amongst MET institutions around the world, especially in developed and developing countries. This poses great challenges for the MET institutions to adhere to the STCW. This situation also negatively affects the process of domesticating the local maritime industry in an effective and efficient manner.