MAPPING THE THEORETICAL TERRAIN AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2.2 Review of scripts
2.2.2.4 Networks between the school science curriculum and industry
A plethora of studies have been conducted both in the North (Yager, 1980; Campbell et al., 1990; Brandt, 1993; Nicolson & Pilling, 1993; Stephenson, 2000) and the South (Manyatsi, Lubben & Campbell, 1992; Mensha, 1994, 1995; Putsoa, 1997) to contextualise the school science curriculum. These studies aimed to contextualise the curriculum by forming a link between school science and the application of scientific knowledge in industry and everyday life. Yager’s (1980) research in the United States of America shows that the science, technology and society approach could lead to an improvement in the participation, motivation and attitude of learners. This research initiated further reform in contextualised
school science, and consequently science became more accessible to a greater number of learners.
Campbell et al. (1990) implemented curriculum initiatives for students aged 11 to 19 years with the Salter’s Science Project. This project was initiated in response to a call by the Department of Education and Science (1985), the Association for Science Education (1981) and the Royal Society (1982) in the United Kingdom, for science to be taught to all school children during the period of statutory education (children aged 5-16 years). The call stipulated that the curriculum should be broad and balanced, with an emphasis on content and the process of inquiry.
The different premises for curriculum development in the Salter’s Science Project and post- apartheid South Africa (specifically the NCS-FET curriculum) are fascinating. The Salter’s process created an awareness of the application of science in industry, while the purpose for curriculum reform in South Africa is to address the ills of apartheid (DoE, 2003; Bhorat &
Oosthuisen, 2006; Naidoo, 2007; Dugmore, 2006). These different premises illustrate that different forces underpin curricula reform in the North and South.
The two goals of the Salter’s Science Project were to develop new ideas for improving the teaching of chemistry and to develop young people’s awareness of the chemical industry. The design of the process relied heavily on the knowledge of experienced school science teachers and industrialists. During the process the designers of the project considered the following theoretical ideas and perspectives:
♦ theories about the selection of curriculum content;
♦ theories about how young people learn; and
♦ theories about educational change.
In this respect, it is interesting to note that the theoretical underpinning that guided curriculum reform in post-apartheid South Africa was aimed at “social redress and equity in the provision of quality education” (DoE, 1998, p. 34).
The Salter’s Science Project programme consisted of four detailed science courses, complete with teaching material, assessment and certification schemes:
♦ Science focus: A course covering all areas of science for ages 11-14
♦ Science: A course covering all areas of science for ages 14-16
♦ Chemistry: A course covering a chemistry programme for ages 13-16
♦ Advanced Chemistry: A course covering a chemistry programme for university entry, ages 16-19.
The rationale for developing material for the four science courses was to provide the student with an authentic picture of science and its role in people’s lives, and to encourage students to connect their learning with their lives. More than 500 schools in the UK used these programmes in 1991.
In 1994 Campbell et al. evaluated the success of the project through interviews with teachers and students. In the end, the success of the Salter’s Science Project was based on the number of students that pursued the programme. It was found that the number of students pursuing the Salter’s GCSE Science Course and GCSE Chemistry Course increased during the period 1992-1994. This tells us nothing about the intervening process, however in addition, it raises the question of reliability of the methods used to obtain data. The evaluation of the success of the Salter’s Science Project does not deepen our understanding of the theoretical underpinning (see above) that formed the basis of the project. The increase in the number of students could be attributed to science becoming a compulsory subject for all students up to the age of 16 in England and Wales.
In spite of the methodological limitations of the study, it is interesting to note the kind of partnership that was formed between school teachers and industry. Teachers received support from industry, which helped make the curriculum more real. Teachers were trained by industry to teach a contextualised curriculum and they received support materials. Stephenson (2000) conducted similar studies, the primary goal of which was to develop new ideas for improving the teaching of chemistry. The reputation of the chemical industry was enhanced by developing a range of educational activities and resources, by promoting partnerships between schools and industry, and by organising in-service training for teachers.
Studies have also been conducted in southern Africa. Putsoa (1997) conducted a study in Swaziland on bridging the gap between school science and technology and local industry.
This project was known as LISSIT (Linking School Science with Industry and Technology).
The LISSIT project aimed to meet the demand for science curriculum reform that would meet industry’s needs. The intention was to make teachers aware of industrial processes and to train them in the teaching of these processes. Mensha (1994) initiated the Science and Technology in Action (STAG) project in Ghana. This aimed to bridge the gap between the science taught in school and that practiced in industry and other areas of everyday life.
Mensha (1994) found that science teachers themselves lack an awareness of the industrial processes around them, and have little or no knowledge about the raw materials, sources and production processes underlying common products such as paper, chocolate, soap and toothpaste.
A partnership was developed between education and industry and led to the production of teacher resource books and support materials for learners. Industry was an important partner in the development of resource materials, an initiative that departs from the usual pattern of curriculum development in Ghana. The development approach included industrial visits, workshops and feedback mechanisms. This empowered both teachers and industrialists. The involvement of the industrialists together with teachers, researchers and policy-makers resulted in creation of a broader community of knowledge producers. Mensha’s study highlights the need for collaboration among stakeholders during curriculum development and reform.
The findings of our preliminary survey echo the absence of industrialists from curriculum development (see Appendix B, Annexure B11, p.163). This idea is worth exploring in South Africa.
Mensha’s study maps the boundary for forming a real link between what is happening in school science and what is happening in industry. The study illustrates that the premises behind curriculum development in Africa are very different from curriculum development in Europe and the developed world. The studies conducted in the West revealed that curriculum initiatives are implemented to facilitate and enhance the understanding of the learner and
social and economic development - and not enhancing understanding or improving the teaching of science. In other words, it should allow for learners and stakeholders to “use their scientific knowledge for their growth or the welfare of the country” (Mensha, 1994, p. 55).
One could argue that, to an extent, South Africa is in a similar predicament.
Another interesting notion is the effort made to support teachers during curricula reform.
These studies attached immense value to forging a partnership with industry and to the support teachers received from industry. This partnership led to the production of teacher resource books and support materials for learners. It empowered both teachers and industrialists, and their joint involvement with researchers and policy-makers resulted in the creation of a broader community of knowledge producers. These studies highlight the need for collaboration or networking among stakeholders during the development and implementation of the curriculum. Forging a curricula partnership with industry serves a twofold purpose: it supports teachers in implementing the new curriculum, and helps ensure its successful implementation.
These studies value the philosophy of partnerships, but do not provide any documented strategies on how to go about forging and maintaining partnerships. They highlight the ad hoc nature of formulating a partnership. The findings from our preliminary study indicated that teachers and industrialists lacked the “know how” on forging partnerships (Appendix B, Annexure B9, question 4, response No. 9, p. 177). It is my intention to contribute towards the discourse on forging partnerships between learning institutions, the DoE and industry. The forging of a partnership between stakeholders is essential to promote human resource development. Having local industrialists design resource materials for curriculum development is worth exploring in South Africa, and could aid in facilitating SKAV development as a collaborative venture.