Chapter 10: Development of multi-disciplinary model for OVC
4.5 FACTORS EXPOSING CHILDREN TO VULNERABILITY
4.5.2 Structural Factors
4.5.2.2 Parent or caregiver factors
Children living in households where a parent or both parents are living with HIV/AIDS are faced with various forms of difficulty (Skoudal & Daniel, 2012). They often must care for their sick parent and are faced with the thought of the possibility of their parent dying. In some cases, they witness their parents dying (DSD, 2012; REPSSI, 2009). This leaves the children with a deep, long-lasting trauma, and emotional, cognitive and psychological scars (Cluver et al., 2009; REPSSI, 2009). The scourge of HIV/AIDS compounds the problem of children’s vulnerability. Many children are left with one or no parent, while in some cases, they had to deal with their ailing parents. Having to care for parents while still young, also leaves children with deep emotional scars, which causes psychosocial issues later on in their life (Cluver et al., 2012). The long-term sickness and eventual loss of a parent or both parents exposes children to a wide range of abuse (Skinner et al., 2006). It also creates feelings of hopelessness, fear, self-blame, despondency and desperation in these children.
This situation is worsened by the fact that children do not receive any intervention after the death of a parent or parents (Cluver et al., 2012). For many children, life has to continue as normal after the loss of their parents. Without any intervention, children lose the meaning of life. In cases where there are no adult caregivers after the loss of a parent or parents, the older child will be forced to take on the adult role and care for their siblings.
In worst cases, they are forced to leave their family home and relocate to live with other relatives. Evidence shows that these children are in some cases subjected to sexual abuse, as well as financial abuse, where young children are forced to work for their food (Mutiso & Mutie, 2018; Pillay, 2016).
(a) Personality characteristics and psychological well-being
Literature documents that children who are growing up with parents or caregivers who have low self-esteem, poor impulse control, suffering from depression, anxiety and anti- social behaviour are exposed to a higher risk of vulnerability than children whose parents do not possess those factors (Ameyaw-Akumfi, 2013; Knowles, 2013). The mental state of the parent determines whether they will be able to provide a nurturing environment for the children to become responsible adults (Knowles, 2013).
(b) History of maltreatment
Children whose parents have experienced maltreatment at some point in their lives tend to face the same fate as their parents did (Knowles, 2013). Studies confirm that individuals with poor parental role models find it difficult to meet the needs of their own children (Makofane, 2015). Evidence shows that parents who have experienced abuse tend to abuse their children (Ameyaw-Akumfi, 2013).
(c) Substance abuse
Evidence has also shown that substance abuse can interfere with the parent’s mental functioning, judgement, inhibitions and protective capacity (Lander, Howsare, & Byrne, 2013). This leads them to neglect the needs of their children. They spend money on addictive substances instead of their household expenses or get involved in criminal activities to cover the cost of their addiction (Ameyaw-Akumfi, 2013; Da Mota Ribeiro, 2016). Literature shows a strong association between substance abuse and ill-treatment of children (Knowles, 2013; Lander et al., 2013). Many children, whose parents abuse alcohol, report cases of both physical and sexual abuse, which exposes children to become more vulnerable (Parolin, Simonelli, Mapelli, Sacco, & Cristofallo, 2016). Studies confirm that parents who abuse alcohol are three times more likely to abuse their children either physically or sexually (Lander et al., 2013; Parolin et al., 2016). Moreover, the use/abuse of alcohol can influence the parental discipline choices and child rearing styles and often lead to violence (Knowles, 2013).
(d) Attitudes and knowledge
As already discussed, having children does not indicate that the parent or caregiver possesses parental knowledge. Negative attitudes and attributions about a child’s behaviour and inaccurate knowledge about the child’s development may result in unrealistic expectations from the child and increase the vulnerability of the child (Knowles, 2013; Satyarthi, 2018). It should also be noted that parents with mental health problems can aggravate their children’s vulnerability.
(e) Age of the parent
Children born to very young mothers are likely to be more vulnerable than their
counterparts (Knowles, 2013). Young mothers tend to be poor, less educated, lack support and information about child development, which exposes their children to vulnerability.
(f) Isolation and social exclusion
Literature has shown that parents who are isolated and have few support systems around them tend to maltreat their children more often than do parents who can count on their support structure (Knowles, 2013; Satyarthi, 2018).
(g) Domestic Violence
In South Africa, violence against women and children is a serious problem. This is the reason why the “16 days of activism against women and children” initiative is highlighted every year to conscientise society about this plight. There are many reports of horrendous violence that is committed against women and children. Domestic violence is a structural problem that involves broader issues of power and unequal power relations (Dunkle, Jewkes, Brown, Gray, & McIntryre, 2004; Danga, 2008). In a rural context, people tend to hold onto traditional systems, traditions and values, which have been found to be a contributory factor to domestic violence.
Children in violent homes often witness parental violence, and this negatively affects their psychosocial functioning. Domestic violence produces harmful emotional consequences (Dunkle et al., 2004; Danga, 2008). The consequences of children witnessing one of their parents being abused are severe and are often overlooked and misunderstood (Dunkle et al., 2004; Singleton, 2015).
(h) Parent child interaction
Families involved in maltreatment of a parent or a child seldom reward their children for positive behaviour, while they display strong responses to their child’s negative behaviour (Ameyaw-Akumfi, 2013). Children who have parents who are less supportive, affectionate, playful and less responsive are more likely to be vulnerable and have attachment issues later in life (Pillay, 2012).