125 participants), transcribed verbatim and translated into English. As with other data generation methods, some challenges were experienced with photovoice. For instance, some educators and learners in the two schools, who were potential subjects of photos as they were not part of the study, raised concerns about the possible use of the cameras to capture incidents and spaces they regarded as private and out of bounds. It took the principals of the schools to address the matter at their school assembly in order to explain the purpose of my project for the second time and to request for calm and give assurance that where photographing involved potential subjects, permission was to be requested before taking the photo (Young & Barrett, 2001; Pink, 2006).
There were some obvious benefits for using photovoice as a method for data generation. For instance, the participants loved the part of taking photos. Therefore, it could be concluded that the technique was both participant-friendly and participant-centred. Photovoice also allowed me to explore affective aspects of the study, particularly those that could not be captured with more conventional language-bound methods. This was also the case with the participants as it made available to them more ways of thinking about and representing their social world without language presenting as a barrier. This point to the importance of action-orientated methods, which are often non-threatening to participants and provide safe spaces for participants to represent their social worlds (Young & Barrett, 2001; Schratz & Walker, 1995). Lastly, photographs served as a valuable trigger of discussions as, it would seem, the participants found it easier to relate to the photographs than to respond to interview questions (Morojele &
Muthukrishna, 2012).
126 When I started the process of data generation, I was concerned that participants, because of their young age, would be unable to respond to questions relating to issues of gender, as I regarded the subject of gender as too abstract for learners in Grade 7. That is, I was caught in the trap of believing that children in lower grades would be too young to have useful understandings about gender (Schwan & Shapiro, 2011; Tobin, 1997). I think I began constructing their responses for them, even before the commencement of the study, as I was already concerned about the possibility that they might confuse gender, which is a social construct, with sex, which is a biological construct. I was concerned about teachers‟ discourses referring to children as children to whom gender does not matter (Bhana, 2003), suggesting that primary schooling contexts are gender-free zones. I had conveniently forgotten Morojele‟s (2010) contention that educators' originations of essential schooling as gender free zone is a ploy to standardise and institutionalise gender inequality. During our first meeting, the intention of which was to explain the purpose of my study, I just without thinking asked them what gender is.
Madam it‟s like when you ask me what my gender is, I always wear pink and colourful clothes and boys wear dark coloured clothes. That‟s how we tell the difference of a girl and boy. (Bongeka, uZalo Primary School).
The above quotation suggests that my concern was misplaced as participants knew and understood gender as a social construct. So, when I realised this, it gave me confidence primary schooling contexts, at least in these two schools, were not gender-free zones (Bhana, 2003;
Morojele, 2010). Therefore, what was revealed during data generation with regards to this study
127 was in agreement with Butler‟s (1990; 1997; 2004) understanding of gender as performative.
Moreover, as much as I was well prepared, had read about participatory research methods, had prepared interviews guidelines and had been an educator for 21 years, I was still concerned as I was new to working with learners as research participants. I was particularly concerned about how power relations were going to play out – that power balance was going to largely privilege me over the participants. However, using the participant-centred approaches throughout the period of data generation assisted in producing rich data from the participants.
The following section presents my reflections on my experiences with the research methods that were used for data generation in this study.
4.8.1 Reflections on observations of spaces and places
I decided to alternate days during my visits at the two schools, so that I could conduct observations for a full day in each school. I realised that the fact that I was taking notes seemed to be making teachers and learners uncomfortable, as I would be asked questions such as “What do you do with the information you are writing in that book?”. I think learners were mostly concerned that I would catch them behind classrooms sitting and standing in what seemed to couples. I explained to them that I was using the information for purposes of my study only, and I that I was not making any reference to specific learners or their school for that matter. I realised that there was a need to remind them that I always ensured confidentiality in everything I did patterning to the study. Regarding my request to address their staff in order to clarify the purpose
128 of my presence at the two schools, both principals chose to address their staff themselves.
However, questions and suspicion continued.
On the days when my focus was on classroom observation, I would inform teachers in advance of my presence, clearly pointing out aspects that I was going to be observing while they were teaching. It is important to note that, teachers did not play a role in the study except that they were present during classroom observation with children. However, this was not possible where specific aspects were not broad enough to cover other aspects that might emerge unexpectedly.
For example, I was not generally ready to know ahead of time what might enthusiasm for me to document all the time. Therefore, I found myself going beyond what I had specified to the teachers. I used to show educators what I had written on my notes. However, I soon learned that teachers did not mind what I was writing, and therefore could not detect the fact that I had gone beyond what I had specified. Some educators tended to use me as a tool for disciplining their learners as they would remind them that there is an important person in class who would write how they are behaving in class. I discouraged them in doing that since I felt it would ruin my relationship with participants.
I was initially challenged by the use of pseudonyms as it was not easy to remember the names learners chose when they are featured in another incident later. I was confusing names which resulted in confusing activities thus failing to follow interesting patterns of behaviour. As I continued I decided to use a pencil under the pseudonym to write the real names. This was useful during data analysis to enable me to give pseudonyms consistently throughout the study. Most of the observational data in this study was collected through taking notes see Appendix F; very little
129 was voice recorded because I was observing learners during breaks when they were eating or playing, assembly and classrooms. I did not want to disturb them.
4.8.2 Document analysis
I asked Mrs Msomi 2 who is the Grade 7 class teacher at Isibaya Primary to give me her class attendance register. I initially wanted to see the classroom enrolment and note the access on schooling based on gender. While I noted that there is access for girls (Redpath, Morrell, Jewkes
& Peacock, 2008) as there were 30 girls and 14 boys, the same group of girls seems to be absent on similar dates every month. When I questioned this, girls mentioned that when they are menstruating they absent themselves as they feel embarrassed when they dirty themselves and become laughing stock of boys. Therefore, while girls and boys might have equal access to the schooling system and their experiences differ in terms of conditions existing in the school environment (Redpath, Morrell, Jewkes, & Peacock, 2008). Girls and boys in the study were interested in the isiZulu reader book and gave me all the examples based on this book which had a girl and boy who were orphans. The boy was made responsible to take care of his elder sister.
Bongeka felt the book was perpetuating feminine and masculine stereotypes as she said:
I do not have a brother and I do not need one. Madam, I can take care of myself, ngiyayishaya inqindi.
The above comment means the reading material that girls and boys are exposed to seems to affect them as the stories on them make them fear something that they have not yet experienced.
2 Not her real name
130 When I read the staff minute book I realised that educators were not allowed to send girls to the tuck shop which is across the road at uZalo Primary. This is because the principal and the School Governing Body believes sending girls out of school will expose them to lot of risk as one girl from the community was raped during the day when their school finished early. Educators are encouraged to ensure that girls leave schools in groups when they are going home. One of the implications is that girls have very different gender experiences, hence the value of using gender- based focus groups in this study.
4.8.3 Conversations with learners
On the first day when I came to both schools I introduced myself as, “Kaise Ngcobo, a student from UKZN I am coming to do research on gender with you to fulfil the requirements for a PhD...” I was aware that in the Zulu culture one is discouraged from calling an adult with her/his name but I wanted to diffuse power between myself as an adult and learners. However, as we started working together I realised that they were calling me “madam”. I accepted the title as I noticed that is how they call their female educators and they seemed comfortable referring to me in that way, even though initially it made me laugh at myself, as I am not used to be referred to as madam. It made me feel belonging to this school as all other female adults are referred to as
“madam”. Some learners ended up asking me if I could teach in their school since one of the educators told them in my absence that I am an educator as well. I explained to them that I am in their school as a researcher and I cannot teach in their school as I am permanently employed in another school.
131 As we went along with our conversations each day, I realised that girls were at ease to confront me and talk to me about the issues relating to gender. This was not the case with boys; they hardly come to me up until I called them. When they come to me, they will be brushing their heads and say “Eish, madam...” (looking down on the floor). I learnt that I needed to start by asking them general questions like:
a) How is the weather?
b) How is/ was your day?
c) Did you play any soccer match during breaks? Etc.
Using this approach assisted me to get boys talking as after these general questions I would notice they were able to raise their eyes and talk freely. Then I would start with my research questions, Mthoko mentioned that:
While we respect female educators but I still feel more comfortable on men to men.
You know madam; sir understands better what happens to us as boys.
The strong rapport and the maintenance of a child-centred approach as well as the gender-based focus interviews assisted me to collect the valuable and in-depth data from girls and boys.
4.8.4 Use of cameras
132 I remember the day I gave girls and boys cameras in both schools as an exciting day for them.
After the last workshop session on how to use the camera and expectations on the kind of photos, I gave all of them numbered cameras. They all had big smiles on their faces, giggling and talking to each other. However, they were concerned about the safety of the cameras. At uZalo Primary they agreed that they would leave them at the tuck shop since it closes late and collect them in the morning. At Isibaya Primary they asked their class educator who is responsible for the aftercare to keep them after school. On the day when Mrs Msomi was absent, girls and boys at Isibaya Primary were challenged, they agreed on their own to give it to Nkanyiso who was the class prefect. I did not experience any challenge with learners using the cameras. Instead I felt learners were motivated to participate in my study as all other learners who were not part of the study felt they lost the opportunity of using the camera for the first time in their lives. When I collected the cameras for processing, learners were eager to see the photos they took.
I was challenged to process the films since there are only a few places that still process disposable camera films. Most of the shops are now using the new technology, like digital cameras. Hence processing the disposable camera films is expensive and has a delay. Even getting the stock of disposable camera was a challenge; I planned to buy 20 cameras. I initially got 12 and I had to wait a week to get the 8 cameras as they were not in stock. Fortunately, that did not delay my data collection period since I planned my resources as soon as I received my ethical clearance certificate, earlier than I expected. Asking the person who was processing the films to number the envelopes with the photos according to the numbers on the cameras assisted me when I was giving the photos to the learners. I had to give them time to cool off as they were over the moon to see the photos they took themselves. During the gender-based focus groups I
133 voice recorded girls and boys as agreed; I felt learners had a lot to talk about and able to add details to each other‟s photos. I allowed them to debate the issues pertaining to gender, for several times I had to step in and ask them to give each other a chance to talk. I was surprised to hear Thokozani from Isibaya Primary being part of the debate because during the individual interviews I had to use lot of probing questions with her. With a smile in her face she mentioned that:
“Having photos makes it easy for me to talk because I am able to see what I am talking about, so I can reflect.”
For this reason, I agree with Wang and Burris (1997) that photovoice is an empowering methodology that allows individuals to reflect up the strengths and concerns of their community.