Step 9 Monitoring and Evaluation
3.2 MODELS OF TOURISM PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT
3.2.5 Planning as a Conceptual System
89 3.2.4 Management/ Marketing models
The management and marketing model relates to management and marketing, looking especially to such topics as the marketing environment, design criteria, and information flows. The idea that marketing decisions can be supported with analytical, mathematical models took off in the sixties of the last century (Wierenga, 2008:3). Although there was a lot of initial optimism, it turned out that the availability of marketing models does not automatically imply that these models are actually used for marketing decision making in practice. The acceptance and use of marketing decision models has been a continuing problem. This has created a stream of research on the bottlenecks for the implementation and use of marketing models in practice and how to overcome them (Wierenga, 2008:9)
KwaZulu-Natal as a tourist destination is competing with other destinations regionally and in the world therefore there should be strong tourism marketing initiatives based on tried and tested marketing models.
90 3.2.6 Integrated Systems Model
A system is a group of interrelated, interdependent and interacting elements that together form a single functional structure (Weaver & Lawton, 2006). The systems theory emerged in the 1930s to clarify and organise complex phenomena that are otherwise too difficult to describe or analyse (Leiper, 1990). A number of authors have used a concept of tourism system to analyse the interrelatedness amongst different aspects of the tourism industry since the 1960s (de Kadt, 1979; Leiper, 1990; Bennett, 2002; Farrell & Twinning-Ward, 2004; Hall & Page, 2006; Weaver &
Lawton, 2006). The afore-mentioned authors base their endeavours to analyse tourism as a system on realisation that tourism is a complex phenomenon that involves interdependencies, energy flows and interactions with other systems.
In using the integrated systems model, the planner must first understand the system through describing and modelling its dimensions and the inter-relationships among its components. Research is also necessary to project and test future scenarios with and without the imposition planning controls. Only through this iterative process can problems and goals be determined (Getz, 1986:28). Parallel with this research stream of the model is the control stream in which policies and actions are taken to shape the system according to established goals. This side of the model resembles traditional problem-solving approaches, except that it incorporates continuous feedback to the research stream (Getz, 1986).
Tourism policy developers and planners in KwaZulu-Natal should look at the tourism industry in the province as an integrated system. All the interrelated elements of the tourism industry should be considered in all the tourism plans at a provincial and municipal level. Figure 3.5 illustrates the tourism whole system model. Leiper’s (1990) basic whole tourism system model places tourism within a framework that minimally requires five interdependent core elements, namely, at least one tourist, at least one tourist-generating region, at least one transit route region, at least one tourist destination, and a travel and tourism industry (Weaver & Lawton, 2006).
The movement of tourists between residence and a destination, by way of a transit
91
region, is the primary flow of energy within this system. Other flows of energy involve movement within a destination as well as exchanges of goods and information.
Additionally, there are many influential environments and external systems in which the tourism system is embedded or impeded by the energy, agricultural and political systems which, respectively, provide or do not provide sufficient fuel, food and accessibility to make the experience possible (Weaver & Lawton, 2006).
FIGURE 3.5: BASIC WHOLE TOURISM SYSTEM MODEL
Source: Leiper (1990) in Weaver & Lawton (2006)
There is a tendency in some tourism system configurations to ignore or gloss over the external environment, as if tourism were somehow a self-contained or closed system (Weaver, 1999). The internal structure of the tourism system therefore, is far more complex than what Leiper implies thereby presenting even more of a challenge to the effective planning and management of the tourism industry (Weaver & Lawton, 2006). The policy development and planning of the tourism industry in KwaZulu- Natal is expected to be premised on the understanding of internal and external influences that shape the tourist movements. The implementation of the policies relating to these movements, is one of the key elements of this research investigation, mainly within the study area.
2. Tourist generating region
4. Tourist destination region 1. Departing Tourists
1. Returning Tourists 3. Transit Route region
Environments: human, socio-cultural, economical, technological, physical, political, legal, etc.
92 3.2.7 Interrelated Input and Output Model
An underlying perspective in planning tourism is that tourism should be viewed as an inter-related system of demand and supply factors. According to Bennett (2002:35) the systems approach recognises the different elements or subsystems of the total system and the fact that they are interrelated and inseparable, but suggests that each of them can be studied separately. The tourism industry in its entirety represents the group of products and services provided to the tourist. Figure 3.6 indicates the tourism system and the inter-relationships that exist among them.
FIGURE 3.6: TOURISM INPUT-OUTPUT SYSTEM
Source: Laws (1991) INPUTS
Tourist Spending Employee Skills
Entrepreneuri al Creativity Investor Capital
THE TOURISM SYSTEM
OUTPUTS Tourist satisfaction Remuneratio n
Profit Impact on tourism areas
Tastes Technology Legislation Economic demographics Conditions
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES
Transport Subsystem
Local Travel Terminals
Main transport subsystem
Destination subsystem
Accommodation Catering Culture Shopping Scenery Activities Tourism
Retailing subsystem
93
Figure 3.6 indicates that the various demand and supply elements of the tourism industry must be taken into cognisance when tourism policy, planning and development are done in KwaZulu-Natal. It is imperative to recognise that the tourism industry needs to act as an integrated system in order to function properly and produce the desired planning outputs. Tourism planning and development within the KwaZulu-Natal province therefore needs to create forward and backward linkages between the tourism products and other tourism products, and between tourism products and supporting services. All elements of the system need to be in place, including infrastructure and enabling legislation, regulations, policies and strategies, for the tourism sector in KwaZulu-Natal to operate as a whole.
The demand factors are international and domestic tourist markets and local residents who use the tourist attractions, facilities and services. The supply factors comprise tourist attractions and activities, accommodation and other tourist facilities and services. Attractions include natural, cultural and special types of features, such as theme parks, zoos, botanic gardens and aquariums, and the activities related to these attractions. Accommodation includes hotels, motels, guest houses and other types of places where tourists stay overnight. The category of other tourist facilities and services includes tour and travel operations, restaurants, shopping, banking and money exchange, and medical and postal facilities and services. These supply factors are called the tourism product. Other elements also relate to supply factors.
In order to make the facilities and services usable, infrastructure is required. Tourism infrastructure particularly includes transportation (air, road, rail, water, etc.), water supply, electric power, sewage and solid waste disposal, and telecommunications (UNWTO, 1994)
Tourism as a system consists of many interrelated sectors and firms that serve the needs of tourists. System analysis is therefore a useful and logical way to investigate how the different parts of tourism work together, and to explore the interactions between the tourism system and its external environment (Keyser, 2002). A clear understanding of how tourism operates as an integrated system is thus essential to ensure proper planning, development, coordination, and management of the tourism
94
industry. This process would allow for setting up a platform for different coordinating frameworks to be established looking at interests of particular sectors within the industry whilst coordinating with the rest of the sub-sectors (Keyser, 2002).
The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 2004) in ensuring proper planning of tourism that takes cognisance of the complex nature of tourism as an integrated system emphasises that the effective development, operation and management of tourism require certain institutional elements. These elements include (UNWTO, 2004):
● Organisational structures, especially government tourism offices and private sector tourism associations such as hotel associations.
● Tourism-related legislation and regulations, such as standards and licensing requirements for hotels and tour and travel agencies.
● Education and training programmes, and training institutions to prepare persons to work effectively in tourism.
● Availability of financial capital to develop tourist attractions, facilities, services and infrastructure, and mechanisms to attract capital investment.
● Marketing strategies and promotion programmes to inform tourists about the country or region, and induce them to visit it, and tourist information facilities and services in the destination areas.
● Travel facilitation of immigration (including visa arrangements), customs and other facilities and services at the entry and exit points of tourists.
Since tourism is viewed as an interrelated system, it should be planed as such, utilising systems analysis techniques (Huybers, 2007:104). The model has two advantages. Firstly, since the system approach is flexible, it can be applied at various levels with different emphasis at each level. Secondly, in systems planning there is a programmed learning and continuous improvement (Huybers, 2007).
Viewing tourism as an interrelated system is particularly important for this study in that it is expected for tourism policy makers and planners in KwaZulu-Natal to be conversant with all the components of the tourism industry for them to provide proper guidance. Various levels of government in KwaZulu-Natal are expected to have
95
tourism plans that are continuously improved to ensure the tourism industry keeps pace with the modern trends.