2.4. Theoretical framework
2.4.3. Political ecology
Political ecology is a relatively new field of research that has emerged as an approach with the intent of addressing critical issues relating to environmental sustainability, natural resource management and contestation over resources (Schubert, 2005). Political ecology is a highly comprehensive theoretical framework within the field of geography and can be described as a conceptual approach that not only attempts to recognise, but also understand the political views, conditions and implications of environmental change (Mung’ong’o, 2009; Zimmer, 2010).
Political ecology is aimed at integrating the complexities of economic development as well as the politics of environmental change, in order to emphasise the importance of human-nature relationships which are fundamental to the conservation urban green spaces (Mung’ong’o, 2009; William and Hutton, 2007). The concept uses the premise that there is a mutual and reciprocal link between people and the environment (Mung’ong’o, 2009; William and Hutton, 2007). Therefore, in this context urban environments can be regarded as a reflection of the quality/ integrity of societal relations at various levels of functioning (Mung’ong’o, 2009).
Political ecology often involves addressing ecological concerns pertaining to the linkages between production, consumption, use and contestation of natural resources at various levels in society (Mung’ong’o, 2009; Schubert, 2005). Furthermore, studies have shown that in order to best address these issues, a good starting point for any government is to enforce the notion that a politicised environment is a critical component when tackling ecological issues and contemporary development, particularly within third world countries (Bailey and Bryant, 2005;
17 Mung’ong’o, 2009). It is also important to note that in political ecology, the environment itself is recognised as a forceful contributor toward its own politicisation (Mung’ong’o, 2009). Over recent years many questions related to socio-environmental issues have become almost entirely affiliated with political questions (Loftus, 2005). The political aspect of political ecology is intended to first identify and then implement various strategies. This is intended to achieve greater levels of equitable distribution of social power together with higher levels of ecological systems, such that an improved governmental stance towards socio-environmental construction can be attained (Loftus, 2005)
With regard to the present study, it is important to highlight some of the relevant environmental legislation and policies that influence the ways in which open green spaces are planned within South Africa. Figure 2.1 provides an overview of relevant environmental policies and legislation at the national, provincial and local level.
Figure 2.1: Overview of relevant environmental policies and legislation within South Africa (Source: Sutton, 2008: 64)
National
Environment Conservation Act 1989
Republic of South Africa Constitution 1996
National Environmental Management Act 1998
National Environmental Management Act: Protected Areas Act 2003
National Environmental Management Act: Biodiversity Act 2004
National Environmental Management Act: Air Quality Act 2004
National Environmental Management Act: Waste Act 2008
National Environmental Management Act: Integrated Coastal Management Act 2008
Provincial
Environmental Impact Assessment 1970
KwaZulu Nature Conservation Act 29 of 1992
Local
Metropolitan Open Space System 1979
Local Agenda 21 1994
Integrated Development Plan 2000
Spatial Development Framework 2000
18 From an environmental perspective, the South African Constitution has cemented issues of environmental rights and protection using strong legislation. The constitution highlights the imperative need for municipalities to promote social and economic growth along with safe and healthy environments. The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) implemented in 1998, was designed to support and ensure that environmental management be incorporated within urban settings, such that environmental governance could be carried out in a cooperative fashion at various scales of government (Sutton, 2008). Furthermore, NEMA also emphasises that vulnerable and valuable ecological areas be given more attention in terms of planning and management, especially in the case of high human use and development pressures (Van der Linde, 2006). The Environment Conservation Act of 1989 was enforced with the dual purpose of protecting and controlling utilisation of the environment (Van der Linde, 2006). Therefore, by identifying and recognising the significance of healthy living environments combined with community needs, the Environment Conservation Act serves as a mechanism whereby open green spaces can be integrated into urban planning (Sutton, 2008). It is also important to note that the national legislation is linked to the provincial and local policies as it provides the foundation required for provincial and local policies to operate effectively.
The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro saw the development of the Agenda 21 report, which was created with the intention of identifying and targeting appropriate environmental action at all scales of government (Sutton, 2008). The report incorporated principles and strategies aimed at achieving a relative stability between development and environmental sustainability.
In South Africa, one of the most important and most actively implemented programmes inspired by the Agenda 21 report, is the Local Agenda 21 programme, which has a key focus on local government action (Selman, 1998; Sutton, 2008). In South Africa, the cities of eThekwini, Cape Town and Johannesburg took the initial step in implementing the Local Agenda 21 programmes as an integral tool with the purpose of post-apartheid reconstruction and development. At a metropolitan level, these initiatives were highly beneficial as they provided the foundation for the implementation of the MOSS, a strategy adopted by numerous South African cities that led to the creation of more cohesive open space network systems (Roberts et al., 2012). Furthermore, eThekwini has gone a step further to utilise open green spaces in a proactive ecosystem-based approach that promotes economic growth, whilst ensuring the restoration and preservation of these green areas (Roberts et al., 2012). In view of the above, it is evident that environmental legislation, if implemented in an effective manner, can potentially improve the maintenance and conservation of green spaces, particularly in
19 developing countries which are often located in close proximity to or nested within biodiversity hotspots (Kowarik, 2011).