According to Tienou (1990:22) 'We have learned to think of our customs as pagan'...
"We" here stands for 'evangelicals'. This learned thinking becomes one of the main issues one needs to grapple with methodologically. Evangelicals in Africa adopted 'Tertullian's sharp disjunction between Christian theology and philosophy' (1990:21) in relation to African culture. But culture is increasingly becoming an issue for theological debate among evangelicals in Africa. The 1973 Bangkok Conference on Salvation Today, the 1974 Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization and the Fifth Assembly of the World Council of Churches discussed culture intensively (1990:19).
One of the questions asked in those conferences was: 'How does culture affect and shape the expression of the Christian faith?' (1990:20).
However, the evangelical study of culture is always done against the background of the evangelical bogy of syncretism. Methodologically speaking, the study of culture in theology is part of the contextual theological method. 'Contextualization' is a term commonly used in evangelical circles, more so than 'enculturation' or 'indigenisation'. However, evangelicals still quarrel about contextualization.
According to Tienou:
•
Tokunboh Adeyemo thinks that Rene Padilla advocates a contextualization which will result in a dynamic-equivalence theology. The end product of dynamic-equivalence theology is not desirable, according to Adeyemo, because the "message becomes relativistic, existential and situational.' He himself proposes "Biblical theology in an African setting", in place of contextualization. One asks "How does this differ from contextualization?" The answer must be: "Very little indeed."
(Tienou 1990:28)
Byang Kato published his "Contextualization and Religious Syncretism in Africa" in July 1974. He did not condemn contextualization, but warned that 'theological meaning must not be sacrificed on the altar of comprehension' (Kato 1985:24).
Cultural Revolution in Africa has been named in his list of 'the reasons for growing syncretistic tendencies in Africa' (1985:25).
But, although there are warnings and fear about the negatives in culture among evangelicals, there is a theological and missiological resolve to study African culture.
Kato (1985:36-7) says: 'Since Christianity is truly [an] African religion, Africans should be made to feel it so. What remains to be done is to help Africans feel very much at home in the Church.' Here we see Kato asking us to do what is necessary, which involves studying African culture. The identification of the role of culture in human perception (Imasogie 1993:16) makes the study of culture an imperative for African evangelicals. Imasogie goes on to suggest the use of the "transcendental"
model in contextual theology in Africa, which takes culture seriously (1993:36-7).
After pointing out that evangelicals are taught to think negatively of their culture, Tienou is more emphatic in saying that: 'Missionaries and pastors need to have a right attitude towards culture, and a sympathetic understanding of it, if they are to help Christians out of this devastating syncretistic way of living' (1990:22). But then he asks the question: 'how will missionaries and pastors develop this right attitude towards African culture?' (1990:22), and he also answers: 'We must start, in our ministerial training institutions and theological seminaries, to make our students aware of the cultural conditioning of all theologies. We must make them aware that culture is not bad in itself (1990:22-3).
According to Tienou:
We must ... study our own culture, the cultures of the biblical world and western cultures. To be a good theologian in Africa requires that one be competent in the traditional theological disciplines, and also well-read in cultural anthropology and sociology. We need to examine African culture very closely to see what elements are compatible or incompatible with the Gospel message. Evangelicals need not be afraid of the fact that we are moving toward culturally differentiated Christianities. This trend is not new in the history of the Christian church movement, and it is no more dangerous today than it was in ages past.
(Tienou 1990:23)
In this process of learning African culture, Tienou warns us against making absolutes of our own scriptural interpretations, but to trust the Holy Spirit to guide the evangelical church in Africa into all truth (Jn 14:26; 16:13) (1990:23). Tienou challenges evangelicals, saying: 'It is now, or never, that African evangelicals must begin reflecting on such issues in order to provide the appropriate answers' (:23). He calls the evangelicals to 'develop a theology of culture, because Christian faith is lived in culture' (:23).
The Lausanne Congress produced "The Lausanne Covenant" on culture. This document states that: 'The development of strategies for world evangelization calls for imaginative pioneering methods. Under God, the result will be the rise of churches deeply rooted in Christ and closely related to their culture' (LC:6) and, at the end of the paragraph on culture, it says: 'and churches must seek to transform and enrich culture, all for the glory of God' (LC:7). After the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization the evangelicals gathered at Willowbank, Bermuda, in a consultation on "Gospel and Culture."
The call on African evangelicals to change attitudes about African culture and to study it as part of their theological and ministerial training has been responded to around in various ways the continent. Just one example is the African Theological Fellowship's Journal of African Christian Thought, which deals with various issues in African culture. The journal has already published two issues, in 1999 and 2001, dedicated to the theme "Gospel and Culture." They have also published issues on
related themes such as "The Challenge of Mother Tongue for African Christian Thought" (2002) and "Biblical Exegesis in African Perspective" (2003). The African Theological Fellowship (ATF) has also developed academic programmes on African Christianity and Bible Translation and Interpretation in Africa.
Concerning the encounter between gospel and culture, Bediako points out that:
'Gospel and culture will be constantly engaged, until we can speak of the conversion of cultures, the redemption of cultures captured in the vision of Revelation 7, when every language and culture will be present in heaven for the one purpose of glorifying God' (Bediako 1999:12). The importance of this statement is that an evangelical approach to the issue of gospel and culture has at its heart the missiological motive of conversion.
However it is clear that evangelicals are taking the study of African culture seriously.
They are resolved to change attitudes and engage in contextual theology, which takes culture and human experience as loci theologici. The question that arises is What should be the roles of "others" outside the context in the development of this theology?
Bevans quotes Emerson, saying: '"If, therefore, a man claims to know and speak of God and carries you backward to the phraseology of some old mouldered nation in another country, in another world, believe him not.'" This suggests, for example, that a 'non-Ghanaian,' (Bevans 1992:14) cannot do Ghanaian theology. Similarly, we can say that a non-Tsonga cannot properly study Tsonga culture.
The weakness of the study by the "other", within evangelical Christianity in Africa, is mostly due to a less critical view being taken of the "other's" culture, and a generalized condemnation of African culture. It is the call, as Bediako says that:
'some of us do not go through any crisis. We assume it is enough to be brought up in the church. We have no "crisis" with Jesus, and therefore fail to realise that the very coming of Jesus presents a problem' (Bediako 1999:11). Without self-awareness of
what challenges the gospel poses to their cultures, the "others" are only helping those cultures that face a crisis with the gospel. But the insider, when doing a study of African culture and religion, is able to come to terms with what he/she is as Christian and as a cultural subject.
Cochrane, interrogating contextual theology in South Africa, points out the problem of "otherness" in relation to Afrikaners, saying: 'otherness on its own is insufficiently penetrating, for it easily leads merely into an acceptance of difference without any analysis of what constitutes that difference outside of anthropology' (Cochrane 2001:74). The "other" in Cochrane's analysis is the oppressor (2001:75). In different contexts the "other" is an expatriate (i.e. missionary) doing theology for "insiders" or indigenous people.
However, methodologically and in practice, contextual theology does allow room for the contribution of "others", provided they work honestly from the "acknowledged"
cultural conditioning of their context. This can only happen in honest sharing of one's humanity with the insiders, which may communicate to the insider's context and help in developing understanding of one's cultural background. This genuine dialogue between the "other" and the insider may help to develop contextual theology with deep understanding and sensitivity of culture (Bevans 1992:16).
How does one respond to all the issues arising from studying African culture as an evangelical in Africa? This calls for the identification of an appropriate theological method which will provide a good theoretical framework for the study. I can find this only in the contextual theological method.
In discussing "Issues in Contextual Theology," Bevans argues that the contextual theology's addition of culture as well as social change to the traditional 'loci' (Bevans 1992:11) of scripture and tradition marks a revolution in theological method, as compared to the traditional way of doing theology (Bevans 1992:11). According to Bevans (1992:11) 'culture and world events become the very source of the theological enterprise along with, and equal to, scripture and tradition. Both poles - human
experience and the Christian tradition - are to be read together dialectically. I found in the contextual method a useful theoretical basis for my study of ntumbuluko.
However, the adoption of this model is done with an awareness of dangers as indicated by the critics of the model. The positive criticism concerning the model points out that it leads to a new way of doing theology, with an emphasis on theology as activity and process, rather than as content. In the words of Anselm 'It provides room for faith to seek understanding' (1992:101). 'The "turn to the subjective"
espoused by the transcendental method clearly includes a turn to the historical and the cultural as genuine theological sources and loci of revelation' (1992:101-02). But more serious critics ask: 'if subjective authenticity is the criterion for authentic theology, what or who provides the criterion of subjective authenticity?' (:102). They also warn that excessive attention to subjectivity in the transcendental sense might easily degenerate into subjectivity in the sense of relativity or 'expressive utilitarian individualism' (:102). The use of this method in this thesis is done with a consciousness of the danger that the critics point out, and with all the care and criticality necessary.
The second model of contextual theology used in this thesis is the translation model.
This model emphasises Christian identity over cultural identity, although not exclusively (Bevans 1992:35). This model provides a framework for self-criticism of the thesis. According to Bevans (:36) 'the person using the translation model will realize that not everything that is "genuinely African," for instance, is automatically good'... A development of such criticality is called for and considered as necessary maturity for the Church in Africa. 'The African Church will come of age when it becomes self-critical, and grows out of self-congratulation' (Mugambi 1998:26).
However, 'the translation model can neither be rejected nor accepted uncritically' (Bevans 1992:37). Here we are also aware of critical questions raised against the model. But the combination of the two models, as well as other models, gives the thesis the solid theoretical framework necessary for the topic. Within this theoretical framework I use various research methodologies.
18 See Bevans (1976).
I will use these models in interpreting my data. The transcendental model allows one to have a section on personal and family story as part of a scientific study. The translation model will be used to approach ntumbuluko, with a view to its transformation (Christ, the transformer of culture).
The Research Methods seminar led by Professor Addo-Fening, Dr. Allison Howell and Rev. Professor Kwame Bediako in 2000, describes the course as:
An examination of research methods and tools necessary for the study and analysis of African Christian life and thought, as expressed in the past and manifested in the present through both written and oral sources. The methods incorporate library-based research and practical fieldwork. Attention will be focussed on the development of tools that will enable students to most effectively benefit from the course, explore the particular research topic the student has chosen and contribute to the students' personal transformation.
(Akrofi Christoller Memorial Centre 2000:1)
This course is aimed at introducing students to methodological issues in researching African Christianity. It aims to help students develop methods for researching African Christianity and theology, even in topics without a written material. For that matter, the approaches in African Christianity research include methods and tools from various disciplines (history, history of religion, theology, phenomenology, missiology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, geography, and environmental studies) (ACMC 2000:1).
The above method helps students become competent in working with both written and oral sources. For dealing with oral sources the method presents a list of technical research devices, namely: (1) camera, (2) cassette recorder and (3) video. Two remarks made during the seminars were important for this research. Professor Bediako indicated that the shift of gravity of Christianity has implications for research as well as on pastoral and missiological ministry (Bediako 2000, lecture notes). This implication, particularly for research, has to do with the shortage of literary sources on theology, history, doctrine and the ministries or practices of mainline churches in Africa. Researchers have to develop new tools that will enable them to research
topics which have no written material. Furthermore, Bediako (2000, lecture notes) said that Bible translation in Africa is the shaper of theology. As the Bible is being read in different languages, we need to wrestle with various issues that come to surface and various understandings of the word of God.
This is the case in this thesis. I am wrestling with the concept of ntumbuluko, which comes from the Mahungu la Manene translation of the Tsonga Bible and Tsonga language Bibles in Mozambique. The study of this concept takes the research into various issues in the life, belief, life cycle and practices of the Tsonga people and their apprehension of the Christian faith. When it comes to ntumbuluko, there are no written sources, and so I had to choose a method and tools that would enable me to do research and to create sources for the topic. I adopted a combination of various methods and used a cassette recorder as my research device. The combination of various search methods, as suggested in the programme on African Christianity research methods, allowed the collection of the necessary data through interviews, cultural knowledge, symbols and songs, etc. For that reason, my research was conceived and organized as a combination of library- and fieldwork-based research to be conducted among the Tsongas of Mozambique.
From the research methodology of Neuman's (1997) Social Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, I used the qualitative research method, which allows one to analyse existing theories and to generate new theories. The data collection method records what people say, including gestures, tones and sounds. It also allows the observation of specific behaviours, social events, ceremonies, documentation of real events, themes and motifs. In this method the data receives a rich description, with colourful details of events in concrete social settings and life stories. This method is used in the study of cultural concepts in order to find how people describe their world. Since the concepts are expressed not only in speech, actions and behaviour, but also in the cultural knowledge of symbols, songs, etc., the description makes use of explanatory diagrams.
These theoretical framework choices helped the research to make use of oral history research methodology, as developed and used by the Oral History Project (Sinomlando) of the Department of History of Christianity at the School of Theology, University of Natal. This methodology was used in accordance with the Guidelines and Principles of the Oral History Association.
According to Mogashoa (1999:1) oral history is 'a pre-written form of history (all written documents were once oral).' The importance of the oral history method for this research lies in the fact that it helps one to work academically with unwritten sources of information. Mogashoa highlights the importance of oral history as a methodological approach with the argument that oral history methodology:
1) is valuable because it elaborates on existing written evidence 2) provides a "fresh" and "un-diluted" insight, and that
3) recording is far more reliable and provides an accurate account of the interview meeting (Mogashoa 1999:4).
Thompson (1992:98) argues for recording saying: 'All exact words used are there as they were spoken and added to them are the social clues, nuances of uncertainty, humour, or pretence, as well as texture of dialect.' With the privileged position of recording as we see here, I chose to collect the primary information on my research topic through interviews. I chose to use semi-structured interviews to allow my informants (or interviewees) respectful flexibility (Mogashoa 1999:6). In
"methodological concerns unique to Africa" Mogashoa (1999:8) recommends the use of the vernacular language, especially when dealing with the older generation. Since my research is on a Tsonga cultural concept, the majority of my informants had to be of the older generation, with the exception of Christians, intellectuals and translators within my target categories or segments of Tsonga society. With this reality, I decided to do my interviews in the vernacular language, Tsonga, the language of ntumbuluko. Here, at this juncture, the oral history methodology is resonant with the African Christianity Research Method. We will discuss its contribution to this research following this discussion.
Finally, Mogashoa (1999:10) speaks of gender sensitivity in Africa in relation to the oral history method. This was a limiting factor in my research. Some of my
informants were women and I was investigating issues that are not easily discussed with men in Tsonga culture. It was possible to have good interviews because all my female informants were elderly people, and Tsonga culture considers their age as
"sexless" and so they are allowed to discuss any issues with young people.
Furthermore, most of them related to me in a culturally permissible relationship to discuss any private issue.
Maybe one of the questions we need to ask is the relationship between my research and oral history methodology. We can find an answer to the question from the
"Guidelines and Principles of the Oral History Association" which says: 'The Oral History Association promotes oral history as a method of gathering and preserving historical information through recorded interviews with participants on past events and ways of life' (42). Using this method for my research falls under Tsonga "ways of life" here included in the gathering of information through recorded interviews.
However, one needs to respect the guiding principles. The oral history association:
[E]ncourages those who produce and use oral history to recognize certain principles, rights, and obligations for the creation of source material that is authentic, useful, and reliable. These include obligations to the interviewee, to the profession, and to the public, as well as mutual obligations between sponsoring organizations and interviewers.
(Neuschwander 1985:41).
My interviews were all done in accordance with the principles that apply to the use of oral history methodology in creating source material. My informants were clearly informed of the purpose of the interviews, as well as of their rights. All the interviews are well documented, transcribed in the original language and cited according the standard norm applied to other sources. The informants were asked to decide on the status of confidentiality of their information (41-44). We also have incorporated narrative theology methods.
Based on the above theoretical framework, I organized my research to follow transcendental and translation models, using all the relevant research methods. I used a qualitative approach from both African Christianity and social sciences research methods in a culture member participant observation approach. I planned and conducted field research. In the field I tape-recorded and transcribed the interviews.