level systems [68]. The energy landscape has been impacted by the adoption and integration of green energy technologies and the drivers for renewable energy technologies and negative factors which could hamper uptake of renewables were identified. It was evidenced that the positive impact of renewable energy technologies on the energy landscape included the fact that renewables can be used to produce cheaper electricity (lower LCOE) and ensure security of supply. At the same time, however, integration of renewables beyond certain percentages was found to create imbalances in the power system, such as voltage fluctuations, increasing frequency, oscillations and system instabilities. From the perspective of the utility, increasing penetration of renewables could potentially see the traditional power producers become obsolete as a result of the utility death cycle.
Figure 4-1: RET Impact on Energy Landscape
Figure 4-1 summarises the main impacts that green technology has had on the energy landscape in South Africa. The positive effects include security of supply and the rise of prosumers. Energy security has been identified as pivotal for economic growth and general well-being of the citizens of a country [44], [77]. Moving onto green technology, ensures that South Africa will be able to meet the demands of a growing economy in line with objectives to reduce carbon emissions and mitigate climate change [12], [78]–[80]. The rise of prosumers also impacts the energy landscape positively because it alleviates the current utility from stress of growing demand. Prosumerism further attributes to the decline in climate change and improvement in energy awareness and public acceptability, which is an indicator of sustainability [12]. However, from the perspective of utility and current power systems, the integration of renewables will likely see adverse effects, which include utility death spiral, and power system imbalances, which could result in more costs
Effects of RET on Energy Landscape
Security of Supply (+) Positive Impact
Rise of Prosumers (+) Positive Impact
(-) Negative Impact
Utility Death Spiral (-) Negative Impact
Power System Imbalances (-) Negative Impact
for utilities. Furthermore, the rise of prosumers could see a further detriment to the utility, especially through the death spiral effect. The factors illustrated in Figure 4-1 are elaborated in more detail in sections 5.2.1 and 5.2.2.
4.3 Findings of research question 2
Research question 2 aimed to identify the key drivers impacting sustainability of green energy technology. This was done in order to concrete the factors that would have to be considered in the development of a framework. Conclusions provided by subject matter experts were in line with many relevant research studies, which helped determine the factors that would be used in the framework.
4.3.1 Objective of research question 2
Research Question 2: What are the key drivers that impact sustainability of energy sources in South Africa?
Research Objective 2: To determine the key drivers that influence sustainability of specifically renewable energy resource technology in South Africa.
4.3.2 Drivers influencing sustainability
The need for sustainability has been reinforced by economic concerns, environmental impacts and growing demand. Outcomes from personal meetings indicated that moving towards a more sustainable form of renewable energy generation would be a key measure to fight climate change and resource depletion. Sustainability was looked at from the perspective of (1) sustainability of the green energy technology itself, (2) the policies and regulatory frameworks in place that ensure sustainability as well as understanding (3) the factors that impact sustainability (positive and negative).
Several factors were identified to have some form of influence on sustainability, such as financial factors; market pull; geographical factors, political factors and behavioural factors which were grouped into the following main factors: economic; social and environmental. A study conducted in [7] also talked to the same factors, i.e., environmental, economic and social aspects of energy as influencers of sustainability. [81] further evidence that the concept of sustainability is not only focused on improving green energy technology and their efficiency but also dependent on ensuring the environmental, social costs, risks and benefits are also well managed and balanced.
The summary of insights and literature observations on sustainability indicators is illustrated in Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2: Sustainability Indicators
The key sustainability indicators that were identified were factors of economy pertaining to the costs and operational costs of renewable technology itself. The more costly a technology, the less competitive it is compared to conventional forms of energy generation. Hence a lower cost will ensure sustainability of the technology. From a social aspect, security of supply is a stand for sustainability while it was identified that a lack of public acceptance, that is, the unwillingness of society to acknowledge and welcome green technology, could hinder sustainability of green technology. From an environmental point of view, the mitigation of carbon emissions and the rampant depletion of non-renewable resources were drivers for sustainability.
Sub-sections 5.2.1, 5.2.2 and 5.2.3, elaborate on the key literature used to identify indicators of sustainability (economic, social and environmental) as well as confirm the insights obtained from personal meetings with various subject matter experts.
Indictors of Sustainability
Economic
Capital costs High = (-)Negative Impact Low= (+) Positive Impact
Operational costs High = (-) Negative Impact Low= (+) Positive Impact Levelised cost of electricity
(LCOE)
High = (-) Negative Impact Low= (+) Positive Impact
Social
Security of Supply High = (+) Positive Impact Low= (-) Negative Impact
Public Acceptability High = (+) Positive Impact Low= (-) Negative Impact
Environmental
Climate change (global warming)
High = (+) Positive Impact Low= (-) Negative Impact
Carbon emissions High = (+) Positive Impact Low= (-) Negative Impact
Depletion of non-renewable resources
High = (+) Positive Impact Low= (-) Negative Impact
4.4 Findings of research question 3
The final research question aimed to ascertain the findings of research questions 1 and 2. Through this research question, the two factors presented in RQ 1 and RQ 2 were collaborated, i.e., success of green energy technology and the uptake and integration thereof can only be ensured through both positive impacts presented by renewable energy and the sustainability thereof. In presenting this it was important to understand the impact RETs, that are sustainable would have given the current energy landscape
4.4.1 Objective of research question 3
Research Question 3: Impact of green and sustainable energy resources to (a) utilities, (b) industry, and (c) society?
Research Objective 3: To determine the impact that green and sustainable energy resources have on three main stakeholders, namely, the utility, industry and society.
4.4.2 Impact of green and sustainable energy resources on utilities, industry and society
The main impact factors that were mentioned in the discussions were in line with findings from literature. These factors are also interconnected to the first two investigations wherein the researcher confirmed the impact of green energy on the current energy landscape and the indicators/drivers of sustainability.
From Figure 4-3 energy security and reduction of carbon emissions are few of the positive impacts that the industry can see from green and sustainable energy. It has been also been evidenced that economic growth is linked to energy security, hence security of supply will prove beneficial for industry. These same factors also prove to have a positive impact on society, that together with the fact that green and sustainable resources will enhance job creation is a further advantage to society. However, there is also concerns of land and noise intrusion associated with renewable energy technologies were also noted – these could affect society adversely. The utility seemingly will see the main negative impacts of green energy, such as the utility death spiral, technical complexities in power system infrastructure and obsoletion, especially if they fail to adapt their current business models to reflect and adapt to these changes in energy technology.
Figure 4-3: Impact of Green and Sustainable Energy
4.5 Conclusion
This chapter highlighted the main findings established through data gathered from relevant and high impact literature and research studies conducted, as well as informal discussions held with subject matter experts. All three research objectives were met, and the findings prove beneficial to the development of an integrated framework.
Impact factors
Utility
Utility Obsoletion (-) Negative Technical
Complexities (-) Negative
Financial Implications (-) Negative Changes in Utility
Business Model
(+) Positive (-) Negative
Industry
Economic/financial (+) Positive (-) Negative Environemtal (+) Positive
Energy security (+) Positive
Society
Job creation (+) Positive Reduction of carbon
emission/mit (+) Positive Energy Security (+) Positive Land, noise and visual
instrusion (-) Negative