THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNANCE
2.3 MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GOVERNANCE
2.3.2 Seven definitions of governance
According to Rhodes (in Pierre, 2000: 55) the word governance can be used as a blanket term to signify a change in the mea~ing of government, often focusing on the extent and form of public intervention and the use of markets to deliver 'public' services.
According to him there are seven definitions of governance:
2.3.2.1 Governance as Corporate Governance
This use refers to the way in which business corporations are directed and controlled. Recently it has been 'translated' for the public sector by some private sector institutions, which want to see more efficient governance in the public sector. Their reports argue for 'a more commercial style of management' to bring about 'a different culture and climate'.
This 'departure from the traditional public service "ethos"' means the public service must exercise 'extra vigilance and care to ensure that sound systems of corporate governance are both set in place and work in practice'. They recommend
openness or the disclosure of information; integrity or straightforward dealing and completeness; and accountability or holding individuals responsible for their actions by a clear allocation of responsibilities and clearly defined roles (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 56).
2.3.2.2 Governance as the New Public Management
Initially the 'new public management' (NPM) had two meanings:
corporate management and marketisation. Corporate management refers to the introduction of private sector management methods to the public sector through performance measures, managing by results, value for money, and closeness to the customer. Marketisation refers to the introduction of incentive structures into the public service provision through contracting-out, quasi-markets, and consumer choice (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 56).
According to Rhodes (in Pierre, 2000: 57-58) NPM is relevant to this discussion of governance because steering is central to the analysis of public management and steering is a synonym for governance. Governance signals both the importance of several variants - the market, participatory, temporary, and regulatory states - and their concern with the new public management.
2.3.2.3 Governance as 'Good Governance'
Government reform is a worldwide trend and 'good govern82ce' is the latest flavour of the month for the international agencies such as the World Bank shaping its lending policy towards third world countries. Three ideas to good governance have been identified: systemic, political, and administrative. The systemic use of governance is broader than government covering the 'distribution of both internal and external political
and economic power'. The political use of governance refers to 'a state enjoying both legitimacy and authority, derived from a democratic mandate'. The administrative use refers to 'an efficient, open accountable and audited public service' (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 57).
To achieve efficiency in the public services, the World Bank seeks to: encourage competition and markets; privatise pt;':Jlic enterprise; reform the civil service by reducing over-staffing;
introduce budgetary discipline; decentralise administration;
and make greater use of non-governmental organisations (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 57).
2.3,2.4 Governance as International Interdependence
There is a growing literature on governance in the fields of international relations and international political economy, But, according to Rhodes (in Pierre, 2000: 57), two ideas of this literature are directly relevant to the study of Public Administration: hollowing-out; and multilevel governance, The hollowing-out thesis argues that international interdependencies erode the authority of the state. There are four processes which limit the autonomy of nation states: the internationalisation of production and financial transactions;
international organisations; international law; and hegemonic powers and power blocs. Multilevel governance suggests links between the national ministries and local and regional authorities. It is a specific example of the impact of international interdependencies on the state.
2.3.2.5 Governance as a Socio-Cybernetic System
The socio-cybernetic approach highlights the limits to governing by a central actor, claiming there is no longer a single sovereign authority. In its place there is a great variety of role-players specific to each policy area; interdependence among these social-political-administrative role-players; shared goals; blurred boundaries between public, private and voluntary sectors; and multiplying and new forms of action, intervention and control. Governance is the result of interactive social-political forms of governing (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 58).
2.3.2.6 Governance as the New Political Economy
The new political economy approach to governance re- examines the government of the economy and the interrelationships between civil society, state, and the market economy as these boundaries become blurred.
For others governance refers to 'the political and economic processes that coordinate activity among economic actors'.
They explore the 'transformation of the institutions that govern economic activity' by focusing on the 'emergence and rearrangement' of several institutional forms of governance.
They identify six ideal mechanisms of governance, namely:
markets, obligational networks, hierarchy, monitoring, promotional networks, and associations (Rhodes in Pierre, 2000: 59).
2.3.2.7 Governance as Networks
In Rhodes's assessment (in Pierre, 2000: 60) networks 8:'e the analytical heart of the nation of governance in the study of
2.3.3
Public Administration. Other key characteristics which define governance include diplomacy, reciprocity and interdependence. More important, however, is that thi':} u~e of governance also suggests that networks are self-organising. At its simplest, self-organising means a network is autonomous and self-governing.
The meaning of governance
Governance as a concept and phenomenon continues to permeate the context and environment of public administration. Scholars and researchers will continue to grapple with the challenges emanating from this concept.
Governance is not about 'means' and 'ends' that can be divided into parts that people easily agree upon. Rather, according to AAPAM (2000: 12) it is "the intricate process whereby the way things are done are as important as their outcome, and one in which human beings are caught in constant disagreement over what is good or not good in the context of prevailing realities."
The concept of governance comprises two distinct but inextricably intertwined dimensions. One is political, and relates tc the commitment of the system to participation, equity and legitimacy.
The other is technical, and relates to issues of efficiency of the public management system (ECA, 1999: 2).
Sing's view (1999: 90) is that governance is both an illusive and multi-faceted concept. Its broad and sometimes vague nature has generated controversy among scholars, researchers, public representatives and public officials, and ideas about and definitions of governance appear in a wide range of contexts.
Governance, according to Van Niekerk et al (2002: 305-306), means the connections and interactions between central, provincial, and local authorities and their publics. Several contributors reinforce the importance of this new term. They argue that connections and interactions between local authorities and their publics p...re of interest, and are the best examples of governance, as opposed to the static analysis that has been conventionally applied when studying local government.
The concept of governance is an innovation of the new South Africa (Van Niekerk et aI, 2002: 306). The notion of forums is a good example of innovative governance in South Africa. Forums have been accorded a critical role in the process of change, initially at national level and then locally through the provision of a transitional act now being implemented and amended.
Local governance, in essence, follows a pattern established in other fields where forums provided a framework for negotiation in the absence of other channels accepted as legitimate by all parties. The result is that a framework now exists for consultation with stakeholders on an institutional basis (Van Niekerk et ai, 2002: 306).
A wider meaning of governance is that it relates to the capacity of a nation to provide its citizens with the choice of representation and unhindered participation in decision-making. It is stated that the governing process includes factors such as improvement for the weaker sections of society in order to participate fully in socio- economic issues affecting them, accessibility to centers of power and opportunity to fulfill basic needs, equity and justice (Sing, 1999: 91).
The democratic values of participation, accessibility, equity and justice are regarded as supplementing governance as an endogenous
capacity for self-government, empowerment and problem-solving and involves citizen's participation in the management of their own affairs, respect for life and recognition of human dignity (Dwivedi in Sing, 1999: 91). This meaning of governance relates to the three aspects of governance determined by the World Bank. These aspects are:
(i) The form of the political regime;
(ii) The process by which authority IS exercised in the management of a country's economic and social resources for development;
(iii) The capacity of governments to design, formulate and implement policies and discharge functions (Sing, 1999:
91).
According to Jonker in Van Niekerk et al (2002: 64) governance implies the establishment of government structures within the context of a state, to ensure that services are rendered to communities to ensure that their general welfare and quality 01 life are promoted.
A more detailed explanation of governance is that it is the sum of many ways that individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting and diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may be taken (Sing, 1999: 92).
Individuals on their own are unable to provide the quantity and quality of services that a government representing the people can provide collectively to the community. In order for government to comply with its purposes and objectives, it IS essential that structures be created to give effect to the needs, wants and desires of the people (Jonker inVan Niekerk et aI, 2002: 65).
It is for this reason that the Constitution was drawn up and adopted in South Africa. The Constitution is the supreme or highest law of the country and must be adhered to by all the people of South Africa. A constitution establishes structures of government and specifies the powers the government has in the process of executing its activities.
These structures and powers can ensure governance.