CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.4 Climate change impacts
2.4.3 Significance of FEW resources and climate change impacts on FEW resources
27 farming of rain-fed crops), making it easier to identify appropriate adaptation based policy interventions” (Thompson-Hall et al., 2016:376).
The reviewed literature on climate change adaptation pays minimal attention to intersectional analysis and as such this area of research is yet to be explored fully (Djoudi et al., 2016; Kaijser and Kronsell, 2014). Van Aelst and Holvoet (2016) conducted one of the few studies that use an intersectional framework to examine how adaptation strategies are mediated through gender and marital status. Marital status is a social category that determines social relations, rights and duties, especially of women (Van Aelst and Holvoet, 2016). This study builds on Van Aelst and Holvoet (2016) research. It looks at the intersections of gender and marital status using PRA tools and techniques. The researcher envisioned that this would capture not only women’s experience as a group but also differences between women based on marital status in determining adaptation strategies.
28 According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development - IFAD (2010), agriculture is where climate change, food security and poverty alleviation intersect. Stefanović (2015) further affirms the link between the climate, agricultural productivity and food security, and suggests that adapting agricultural systems to climate change is important to maintain food security. The role of agriculture in food security enhancement is multidimensional and multifaceted (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). Agricultural activities contribute to food security through the supply of crops and animal based foodstuffs for consumption, and through the creation of employment opportunities and access to other non-farm foods, which are bought using income from farm produce (Shisanya and Hendriks, 2011).
Climate change impacts affect agriculture directly and indirectly, directly through changes in weather variables (Sowunmi and Kintola, 2009) and indirectly through the increased incidence of diseases and pests (Ngigi, 2009). Climate change negatively affects food access by reducing agricultural production, and agricultural income, increasing risks and disrupting markets (Lipper et al., 2014). Africa’s food production systems are highly vulnerable to climate change because of intra and inter seasonal climate variability; recurrent floods, and droughts that affect crops; endemic poverty that limits adaptive capacity; and high dependence on rain fed agriculture (Ruppel et al., 2014). More than two-thirds of Africans are dependent on rain-fed agriculture for their livelihoods (Connolly-Boutin and Smit, 2016) and about 20.7% of the households within South Africa are involved in agriculture, and 65% of these households use subsistence agriculture to meet household food demands (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015).
With pronounced climate change impacts, the use of agriculture to promote food security looks bleak (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). Gbetibouo et al. (2010) reveal that KZNs farming system is vulnerable to climate change because of the high population density, high number of small-scale farmers, dependence on rain-fed agriculture, and land degradation.
Rural households report food insecurity more frequently than urban counterparts (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). The KZN province is predominantly rural with food insecurity highest in the rural areas (Tarwireyi and Fanadzo, 2013). Hence, the focus on rural Ndwedwe-Cibane. Amongst the causes of food insecurity in rural areas is low agricultural production (Kirsten and Moldenhauer, 2006); low household incomes; high food prices; lack of land tenure; and the Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome - HIV/AIDS pandemic (Shisanya and Hendriks, 2011).
Men and women play complementary roles to ensure food security within the household however, women play a greater role to ensure nutrition and to manage natural resources (Brody et al., 2008).
Seventy percent of the world’s crop producers are women and produce 60-80% of the world’s food crops (Glazebrook, 2011). Yet they own less than 20% of the land globally (Constable, 2015). In Africa women are responsible for 80% of the food production (Glazebrook, 2011) and make up 80% of small- scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (Tibesigwa et al., 2015). In rural households where subsistence
29 agriculture is practiced women play multiple roles throughout the processes of production, handling and food preparation (Sharaunga et al., 2015). In view of their large numbers and contribution to agricultural production, women are disproportionally affected by any strains on agricultural production and face greater climate change risks (Karanja, n.d.).
The researcher has established that food security is threatened by climate change, and that this is particularly worrying for women because of their role as agricultural producers (Glazebrook, 2011).
Furthermore, in female-headed rural households agriculture contributes more to food security in comparison to male-headed households (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). Subjective and objective measures of food security reveal that male-headed small-scale farm households are more food secure than female counterparts (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). Subsistence agriculture’s contribution to household income and food availability remains low in South Africa, yet subsistence agriculture plays a vital role in reducing vulnerability to food insecurity at the household level (Sharaunga et al., 2015).
During periods of food shortage as a result of climatic conditions, women’s workload is increased as they work hard in the fields to try and grow crops (Phillipo et al., 2015). Moreover, women prioritize their male household members and children and consequently eat last and eat smaller portions (Tunde, 2011). Thus it comes as no surprise that globally 60% of the chronically hungry people are women, with climate change this number will increase (Vinyeta et al., 2015).
Female-headed households in rural areas are said to be the poorest and are highly reliant on agriculture yet there is little research and understanding concerning the intersection of women, agriculture and climate change (Tibesigwa and Visser, 2015). This study addresses gaps in literature and builds by establishing climate change impacts on agriculture. In addition, the neglected intersectional principle is explored by extending the assessment of climate change impacts on women differentiated by marital status. It has been established that agriculture is adaptable to climate change however, the outbreak of pests and diseases and weather extremes will pose adaptation challenges. Agricultural production contributes to climate change but also offers cost effective mitigation options by direct carbon sequestration this in turn positively affects adaptation and mitigation strategies (Tubiello and Van der Velde, 2004).
2.4.3.2 Climate change impacts on firewood resources
The links between climate change, gender and energy supplies are strongest in countries with limited supply of basic electricity and consequently high reliance on biomass fuels (United Nations WomenWatch, 2015). For three billion people (approximately 40% of the world’s population) biomass fuel is the main supply of energy for food preparation and heating (Jagger and Shively, 2014). Moreover, due to electricity backlogs, a great proportion of Africans residing in rural areas satisfy their energy
30 needs through traditional biomass fuels (Niu et al., 2014). Similarly, 16 million South Africans, burn traditional sources of energy to satisfy their energy needs (Chikulo, 2014). Traditional biomass fuels include charcoal, agricultural waste and wood, the latter being the most used in rural areas (Chikulo, 2014). Approximately 2.8 billion people across the globe including the poorest and marginalized burn wood to satisfy their energy needs (Bailis et al., 2015). Seventy-five percent of the fuel used in rural South Africa is wood (Wilson and Green, 2000) and rural KZN heavily relies on firewood for energy (Linkd Environmental Services, 2013). Hence, this study focuses on firewood.
In South Africa particularly in black rural communities women and children are responsible for energy provision (Brody et al., 2008; Chikulo, 2014). The energy is used for various purposes such as lighting, cooking, and heating (Goh, 2012; Linkd Environmental Services, 2013; Niu et al., 2014). The hardships faced by women when collecting fuel are well understood and documented in literature (Goh, 2012). For example firewood collection is a strenuous and time-consuming task (Linkd Environmental Services, 2013; Niu et al., 2014) and may take up to six hours per day (Chikulo, 2014). In general more women (than men) are involved in firewood collection and walk longer distances in search of fuel (see figure 2.4.3.2.1) (Meyiwa et al., 2014). Furthermore, firewood loads may weigh up to 35 kilograms (Chikulo, 2014). This in turn negatively affects public health (for example, physical health risks such as neck and back pain) (Bailis et al., 2015; Chikulo, 2014). Additionally, firewood collection encourages deforestation and forest degradation and therefore contributes to climate change (Bailis et al., 2015).
Firewood is becoming scarce due to climate change related stresses and shocks on forest resources (Chikulo, 2014). Fuel shortages either directly or indirectly result in considerable time and labour burdens for women (Goh, 2012). For example, women may have to travel longer distances in search of firewood (Chikulo, 2014). A case study validated this, decreased snowfall in Nepal for about six years contributed to a longer dry season, this change negatively affected crop production and increased famine.
Increased famine prompted community members to rely on income-driven deforestation, which severely reduced the availability of trees for firewood. As a result, women had to walk much farther to obtain firewood, on average the walk took about six hours every three days (Leduc, 2008 as cited in Goh 2012).
The case study demonstrates another gender differentiated climate change impact. Furthermore, reduced availability of firewood leads to the collection of low quality wood and changes in food preparation patterns (Jagger and Shively, 2014). Climate change impacts may also precipitate conflict between resource users, conflict in turn may harm social cohesion and informal institutions (Goh, 2012). For example, in Kenya increased incidence of floods and drought increased competition over resources and poverty leading to conflicts mostly in the form of armed livestock raiding (Goh, 2012).
31 Figure 2.4.3.2.1: Distance travelled to collect wood or dung by sex (in %) (Statistics South Africa - Stats SA, 2012 - as cited by Meyiwa et al., 2014:105)
2.4.3.3 Climate change impacts on water resources
Climate change affects the availability of water used for domestic and productive tasks by directly and indirectly affecting water resources (United Nations WomenWatch, 2015). Water stress undermines livelihood options and sustainability (Bob and Babugura, 2014). According to Misra (2014) between 1.5 and 3 billion people are dependent on groundwater for drinking water. This highlights the importance of understanding climate change impacts on groundwater quantity and quality (Misra, 2014). Christian (2014) predicts that by 2020 and 2050, between 75 and 250 million people respectively in Africa will experience increased water stress due to climate change. However, climate change impacts on water resources will vary across African continent, looking at the current situation northern and southern Africa will experience increasing water scarcity (Below et al., 2010; Bob and Babugura, 2014; Ndaki, 2014; Ruppel et al., 2014). Dube et al. (2014) and Urama and Ozor (2010) further affirm that climate change poses major risk to water resources namely through: drought prevalence, flood prevalence and having un-usable resource.
Water resources are the primary medium through which climate change impacts will be felt by South Africans (Schulze et al., 2014). South Africa is one of the countries that could potentially experience chronic water stress by 2025 (Dube et al., 2014). Within South Africa, KZNs water resources are vulnerable to climate change (Thornhill et al., 2009). Understanding the climate change - water resource nexus provides Africans the opportunity to address the negative issues and chart the way forward for sustainable water use (Urama and Ozor, 2010).
32 According to Tandon (2007), more than 50% of the 1.2 billion people who do not have access to water worldwide are women and girls. Yet, women and girls are largely responsible for water collection and management in their communities (Brody et al., 2008; Tandon, 2007). Vinyeta et al. (2015) note that the women - water relationship is evidenced in birth, during ceremonies, and in domestic activities such as cooking and cleaning. Therefore women are sensitive to changes in climatic conditions that affect water accessibility, quantity, and quality (Parikh, 2007). It is evident that access to water has gender dimensions (Aboud, 2011) in addition, to the spatial dimension. A great proportion of South Africa’s rural residents do not have access to piped water (Otieno and Adeyemo, n.d.) and depend on natural water resources such as rivers and streams for water supply (Linkd Environmental Services, 2013).
Natural water resources are characterized by unequal geographical distribution and accessibility, and unsustainable water use (Bates et al., 2008). Figure 2.4.3.3.1.illustrates that more women than men are involved in water collection. Additionally, women travel longer distances in search of water supplies (Otieno and Adeyemo, n.d). This leads to physical health risks for women and time poverty (Tandon, 2007). It has been observed that girls and women spend on average eight hours a day travelling long distances of at least 10 kilometers to transport water between 15 and 20 litres on each trip (Tandon, 2007). Walking for miles in search for water is a feminist issue, the performance of this task by women, contributes to her subordination in society (Nhanenge, 2007).
Figure 2.4.3.3.1: Distance travelled to collect water by sex (in %) (Stats SA, 2012 as cited in Meyiwa et al., 2014:105)
Water shortages as a result of climate change impacts will result in considerable time and physical burdens for women (Goh, 2012). Women will have no choice but to spend more time and walk longer distances in search of potable water (Goh, 2012). This is already occurring in certain parts of the world, for example in Sonora, Mexico climate change has led to the depletion of water resources, and this has negatively impacted women’s livelihoods and social connections (Goh, 2012). In addition, women walk
33 longer distances (ranging from 10 to 15 kilometers a day) to fetch water because of the increasing frequency of droughts in northern Kenya (Parikh, 2007). In addition to the increasing time allocated to water collection and the longer distances walked to access water, Bob and Babugura (2014) revealed that girls were exposed to gender based violence in the Eastern Cape and KZN as they walked further and further from home in search of water. The more time women spend searching for water means they have less time for other household tasks, increased time poverty, and may have to forego opportunities for economic development and other income generating activities (Goh, 2012; Terry, 2009). The differential impacts of climate change are also evident here (Goh, 2012). Moreover, water scarcity coincides with an increasing human population and the increasing practice of irrigation which may lead to increased risk of conflict over water resources (Besada and Werner, 2015). Thompson (2016) argues that gender cannot be the only category used to understand the social dynamics of water. She further notes that from an intersectional perspective water use, access, and control are determined by intersecting categories.
Hence, the importance of the intersectional perspective applied in this study.