57 theory and communities of practice theory can be used together as an analytical lens to explore how support groups show their capability in exploring and responding to certain information, education and communication strategies in relation to the contradictions they encounter in their families, communities and from the support group members themselves.
58 trust. She talks about the role of social capital as a social glue, binding societies together due to commitment and trust for each other. On herding activities, Pitikoe found out that herd boys practiced social capital as a reciprocal relationship because they would share their learning when they alternated days to attend school. While Boy A had gone for classes, Boy B would be herding flocks for both of them and vice versa. According to Pitikoe this activity relied on trust and reciprocity among the boys to achieve their common purpose (learning) regardless of their responsibilities towards flocks of sheep or cattle. Pitikoe (2016) supports earlier research such as by Portes (1998) and Ferlander, (2007) because all authors conclude that non-financial resources can compensate for lack of other forms of capital in sustaining livelihoods and lifestyles.
Thakaso (2017), in a study of youth attitudes to citizenship in Lesotho, also argues that social capital is used as a resource among young people who build networks through trust, reciprocity and sharing among group members. Thakaso provides an example of a youth choir where the youth rely on sharing new and old songs and human qualities that the choir needs to possess in order to work together. Woolcock (2001) and Putnam (2000) both refer to the three concepts of bonding, bridging and linking social capital.
3.3.1 Bonding social capital
Bonding social capital reflects the strong interpersonal relationships and sense of community that people value in close knit relationships. Bonding refers to deep inward-looking relationships characteristic of primary social groups such as families, which reinforce alliances among similar types of people. Woolcock (2001) argues that bonding social capital denotes ties between people in similar situations, such as immediate family, close friends and neighbours. Portes (1998, 2001) and Putnam (2000) similarly indicate that bonding social capital is made up of the strong ties between people who share similar demographic or social characteristics such as friends, close family members, neighbours and work colleagues. The relationships a person has with friends and family, usually reflect the strongest form of social capital. Therefore, family relations are significant in this aspect. Although Putnam (2000) acknowledges that criminal gangs can also create bonding social capital through close networks, he also refers to social groups such as choirs and bowling clubs. These more formalised societies can also have a role in creating bridging social capital.
59 3.3.2 Bridging social capital
Bridging refers to the next layer of social networks that can occur between socially heterogeneous groups. Woolcock (2001) argues that bridging social capital encompasses less distinct ties between people and these can be termed as loose friendships or collegial relationships within the work situation. Such bridging social capital links can enhance bonding networks by providing additional resources to a situation. This is where the building of norms and trust is needed between networks to enhance mutual participation and mutual benefit in completing a task. This study therefore explores the extent to which support group members identified outside contacts in a way that widened and strengthened opportunities for information access. Putnam (2000) argued that joining an organisation cuts in half an individual's chance of dying within the next year due to information and health tips accessed from new organisational networks. This study explored how support group members made bridging links from their groups and involved their outside networks in information provision. Linking social capital is an extension of bridging social capital.
3.3.3 Linking social capital
Linking social capital as discussed by Putnam (2000) reflects the relationship between an individual, groups and the outside world such as government officials, influential bodies in the community or other elected leaders. Linking social capital might become crystallised when the support group members utilise their relationships with government and non-governmental ministries for information access and clarity of topics of their interest. The support groups’
relations with institutions and other levels of power, could therefore provide a base for identification of diverse information resources.
Putman (2000) emphasises the value of social capital networks and norms for mutual or collective benefits. Others including Coleman, emphasise the benefits occurring to individuals.
This theory is used to analy5e the findings because it is deemed relevant to this study.
3.3.4 Relevance of social capital to the study
Negotiating discourses about HIV, its prevention and care by itself calls for a more unified approach – by communities learning and sharing experiences together. The support groups
60 discussing and sharing their views on issues of their concern were mechanisms to release them from the daunting challenges brought by HIV and AIDS to their lives. It will be seen in later chapters that meaning making would not have been easy for the three support groups in this study had it not been for the consultations made with their respective networks. The outcomes of these consultations were brought along to the support group as a resource for further learning.
Social capital is therefore relevant to the study in that it provided concepts that could identify the different kinds of networking that may contribute as resources of information and knowledge for learning.
Bonding social capital tends to be a close-knit kind of relationship, and is likely to occur in small communities. Bonding social capital can be identified as learning that promotes stability rather than change (as it occurs between and amongst the support groups). Bridging and linking social capital can be associated with finding new information outside of the small group (seeking clarity of some issues from other members of the community, their relatives and friends and bringing back their responses to the support groups as bridging social capital and seeking information from professionals or wider networks as linking social capital). Social capital theory has proven to be versatile in its functions and has been applied in many settings – for example educational, economic and sociological (McClenagham, 2000), in relation to reducing corruption in societies); health (Seid, 2016 in relation to social groups supporting each other in avoiding risky health behaviours); and political (Putnam, 2000 in relation to forming strong democracies).
Baron, Field and Schuller (2000) also refer to these three forms of social capital in terms of their usefulness for lifelong learning.
3.3.5 Critiques of social capital theory
A number of scholars have raised concerns about the lack of a precise definition of social capital.
Portes (1998, p. 2), for example, noted that the term has become so widely used, including in mainstream media, that ‘the point is approaching at which social capital comes to be applied to so many events and in so many different contexts as to lose any distinct meaning.’ Robison, Schmid and Siles (2010) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition. They argue that many proposed definitions of social capital fail to satisfy the requirements of capital. They propose that social capital be
61 defined as ‘sympathy’. The object of another's sympathy has social capital since in times of need, friends, relatives and the significant others tend to offer sympathy as priority. Those who have sympathy for others are considered to provide social capital. Nevertheless, the concept of social capital as reflecting networks of resources and relationships of reciprocity and trust, was deemed relevant for elaborating on the ways in which the support groups operated as a community of practice.
The support groups in this study were analysed in relation to the extent to which they underwent transformative learning.