Chapter 5 Methodology Methodology
5.2. Research Design
5.2.4. Survey
It is apparent that this study, being quantitative and employing both cross- sectional and correlational designs, was best suited to employ a survey. To substantiate this, Greener (2011) states that a survey:
is based on a sample, with the aim being to have as large a sample as is necessary to capture all of the variation in the population; that is occurs at a single point in time (or as near as possible to a single point in time); it is predominantly quantitative; and the aim is to seek patterns within that quantitative data (p. 39).
In addition, given the objectives of this study, a survey design was considered as most relevant to be employed because it is flexible and is best suited to study people’s opinions, attitudes, beliefs and values regarding a wide range of issues at a given time (Rosnow & Rosenthal, 1996; Stangor, 2004). Surveys are also used to examine group differences and to test causal propositions about the sources of attitudes, beliefs and behaviour (Weisberg, Krosnick & Bowen, 1996).
However, it is important to note that not all surveys are quantitative in their approach. Nevertheless, the focus of this study is on quantitative surveys which use numerical data produced by the measurements of variables (Punch, 2003).
Goodwin (2005) defines a survey as a structured set of questions or statements given to a group of people to measure their attitudes, beliefs, values or tendencies to act. For Gavin (2008), a survey refers to a research method for gathering data in a non-experimental way that could include the use of questionnaires, interviews or unobtrusive observations. There are a number of important considerations of survey research that the researcher in this study paid attention to, and they are discussed in various parts of this chapter. These include, firstly, defining research objectives and formulating research questions (Greener, 2011; Muijs, 2011). Objectives are defined by Punch (2003) as a statement, at a reasonably high level of generality and abstraction, of what the survey is trying to find out. Research questions, on the other hand, are used to provide a sharp focus that is more specific to the objectives of the study. What the research questions are attempting to answer follow directly from the objectives of the study (Greener, 2011). The second consideration of survey research is the accurate description of the population being studied and specification of the sampling procedures used,
since the reliability of surveys depends greatly on the care taken in selecting a sample (Struwig and Stead, 2001). This implies that the sample is not selected haphazardly or from people who volunteer to participate, but is scientifically chosen so that each person in the population has an equal chance of selection (Gavin, 2008). The third consideration is the design of the instrument and the actual data collection procedure (Muijs, 2011). Information is collected by means of a standardised procedure (a questionnaire in the current study) so that every participant is asked the same questions (Gavin, 2008). Each of these considerations is interdependent with one other. It would be difficult to determine the sample if the objectives of the survey are unknown. Similarly, the choice of an instrument will also affect the survey methodology and the sampling method that can be employed (Stopher, 2012).
There are a number of advantages that have made survey research popular among researchers. Survey research is praised by Sukamolson (2005) for using scientific sampling to measure characteristics of the population with statistical precision. Particularly in large surveys, according to Bethlehem (1999), statistical tests always produce significant results. This enables comparison between groups that can be related to the entire population and a degree of certainty is therefore possible (Sukamolson, 2005). Furthermore, Muiijs (2011) adds that survey studies are also efficient in terms of enabling a researcher to gather large numbers of data at reasonably low cost and effort compared to other methods such as experiments and observations. The same author is also of the opinion that surveys have, as an advantage, the ability to easily guarantee respondents’ anonymity, which may lead to more candid answers than less anonymous methods such as interviews (Muijs, 2001). This, according Greener (2011), should enhance participants’ honesty and the feeling that they can say what they believe without being concerned whether their views will in some way be used against them. Gavin (2008) concurs that individual respondents should never be identified in reporting survey findings and that all results in a survey must be presented in completely anonymous summaries such as statistical tables and charts.
Surveys also have a number of disadvantages. In the first place, collecting information about a large population is very expensive and could be time- consuming (Bethlehem, 1999). In the second place, Gavin (2008) states that
difficulties are encountered with surveys, such as a poor response rate which may be associated with a poorly constructed method. If a sample survey is affected by non-response, Bethlehem (1999) cautions that this may result in invalid estimates of population characteristics. However, according to Greener (2011), if the researcher can show that their survey response rate is representative of their sample, and that their sampling method was reliable, then they have a good basis for arguing that their results are reliable. Gavin (1999) adds that a further disadvantage of survey approaches is that there is a possibility that people may answer questions in a socially desirable way in an attempt to portray themselves in a positive manner, irrespective of accuracy. Fourthly, surveys also suffer the limitation of forcing respondents into particular response categories such as Likert scales, thereby limiting the range of responses (Simon & Goes, 2013). Muijs (2001) argues that the use of a standardised questionnaire, which is by its nature limited in length and depth of responses, thus makes it difficult to establish a deeper understanding of processes and contextual differences. Surveys, therefore, are very limiting to participants in terms of participants’ ability to elaborate or clarify their positions on their responses.
5.2.4.1. Self-administered questionnaire.
Although survey designs are quite flexible and different methods are used to collect data, Muijs (2011) argues, however, that they are all characterised by the collection of data using standardised techniques. According to van Vuuren and Maree (1999), the data collection techniques that are used for surveys include personal interviews, telephone interviews, questionnaires and diaries. Researchers will sometimes also combine these methods. The nature of information required from the participants of this study was based on the aims and objectives underpinning the study, and how best to elicit this information was what informed the decision to select the particular data collection method used. Self- administered questionnaires were used in this study to collect data from participants. In this technique, Struwig and Stead (2001) state that data is obtained from questionnaires completed by the respondents. While self-administered questionnaires are usually read and completed by the participant, the researcher or research assistants involved in this study were present when participants completed these questionnaires. According to Rosnow and Rosenthal (1996), this provides an opportunity to establish rapport with the participants and to stimulate
the trust and cooperation needed to probe sensitive areas. Another advantage, according to Clark-Carter (2010), is to afford participants an opportunity to ask clarity-seeking questions, if there are any, and to answer them immediately. This also addresses a concern raised by Greener (2011), which is that participants completing self-administered questionnaires are likely to respond to different words and concepts in different ways when they lack clarity regarding the meanings of these words and concepts. Although resistance may still be encountered, Clark- Carter (2010) argues that self-administered questionnaires produce the best response rate when completed in the presence of the researcher.
The major problem with self-administered questionnaires relates to the veracity of the responses (Jackson, 2012). The researcher should, thus, be concerned with whether respondents provide reliable information. To illustrate this shortcoming, Babbie (2011) provides an example of where, in a study of child rearing, respondents might be asked to report the age at which they first talked back to their parents. Apart from the problem of defining ‘talking back’ to parents, Babbie (2011) argues that it is doubtful that most respondents would remember this with any degree of accuracy. Respondents completing self-administered questionnaires must therefore be competent and willing to answer questions posed to them.