Chapter 2 Literature Review Literature Review
3.3. African Indigenous Views of Illness and Mental Illness
3.3.1. Worldviews: an Africentric perspective
A worldview is defined by Mkhize (2004) as a set of basic assumptions that a group of people develops in order to explain reality and their place and purpose in the world. According to Karanja (2010), a worldview refers to a cultural group’s understanding of universe (cosmology), being (ontology), values (axiology) and knowledge (epistemology), which all contribute to the ways in which a people make sense of their lived reality. Grills (2006) contends that people’s values, language, shared history and experience all affect how they view things, how they feel, and what matters to them. It is important to note that different terms are used, such as African or European, to refer to the concept of the worldview. To illustrate this, Karanja (2010) posits that the African worldview is complementary to what others may call Afrocentric, African-centered or Africentric worldviews and the European worldview is complementary to Eurocentric, European-centered, Euro- American worldviews. This clearly demonstrates that a number of different worldviews exist. These worldviews are not necessarily based on research or verified knowledge, but rather on the assumptions people make about the nature of the world (Semenya & Mokwena, 2012). They are usually unconsciously or uncritically taken for granted as merely the way things are. This essentially implies that there is an acquired communal ideology and unique worldview among African people that is passed down from elder members of the community and is valued (Ayuya et al., 2015).
Although Ivey and Myers (2008) state that this acquired and passed on knowledge and experience is adhered to and treated as the norm by many, it is important to note that not all Africans view the world according to one uniform African worldview. The African continent comprises thousands of indigenous groups living in diverse geographical areas, and it would be erroneous to assume that all of these communities operate and experience the world in an indistinguishable manner (Obasi, 2002). This means that alternative worldviews exist, however Hart (2010) argues that these views are not usually held by the majority of the society. It is in this regard that Kanu (2013) cautions that:
the idea of African worldview must be understood in a general sense and in restricted sense, because what we call African Worldview is not shared by all Africans in its totality but rather some characteristic features of the common elements among African worldview (p. 534).
For example, Myers (1993), Nobels (1990) as well as Wallace and Constantine (2005) have argued that African Americans’ values today can be considered a mixture of African traditionalism and philosophies and the values that come from the historical experience of living in the United States. It is also pertinent to mention that individuals from different cultural groups from other continents who subscribe to alternative worldviews may share some worldviews that are similar to those of Africans. Sue and Sue (2003) concur that individuals can adapt and use behaviours associated with another worldview. This shows that the way in which people of African descent come to acquire knowledge and information is fluid and inclusive, posits Grills (2003).
The influence of colonisation and the vilification of Africa by Europeans regarding the philosophical integrity of traditions in Africa cannot be ignored (Thabede, 2008). This influence may have caused some Africans to view their own traditional practices as inferior and shameful, and may have led to them abandoning their value systems by trying to embrace a European worldview. Also blaming colonisation for the hindrance of the development of African traditions, Ngwabi Bhebe in Viriri and Mungwini (2010) argues that political subjugation by Europe traumatised Africans to the extent that many of them lost confidence in and looked down upon their own cultures, forcing some of them to view and embrace Christianity and Islam as progressive. Nevertheless, literature shows that the indigenous African worldview has survived and even spread, and is also adhered to by a number of indigenous communities in other continents (Mbiti, 2015; Mkhize, 2004). Reference in this chapter will be made to dominant themes, in the sense of those that are common within the African culture. Furthermore, ideas put forth regarding the African worldview are presented from the researcher’s own positionality and situatedness as an African in South Africa. It is with reference to this positionality as an African that the researcher has come to understand this African worldview. The African worldview in this study is therefore defined as the way in which Africans perceive their world which, in turn, influences their way of life (Matoane, 2012). The worldview prevalent in a society provides an
insight into the way its members think and behave, the way in which they conceptualise the existential problems of their lives, and ultimately their views of what it takes to be human (de Villiers & Herselman, 2004). The following four dimensions that conceptualise the worldview of African people will be discussed to complement the overview of an African belief system (Baloyi & Makobe- Rabothata, 2013; Karanja, 2010; Mkhize, 2004; Myers, 1987 ): a) epistemology, b) cosmology, c) ontology, and d) axiology. These dimensions provide the basic themes in African worldview about the structure of the world, the nature of being and the intrinsic values which are the imperatives for a good life.
3.3.1.1. Epistemology.
Epistemology is generally concerned with the matter of what constitutes knowledge. Indigenous epistemology, therefore, refers to a cultural group’s way of theorising knowledge (Gegeo & Watson-Gegeo, 2001). The epistemological relevance to the current research is based on the position that a society’s conceptualisation of mental illness is grounded in an acquired, preserved and lived knowledge. The African epistemological position asserts that there are different ways of viewing reality and that knowledge is acquired through everyday experiences (Njoki, 2005). Unlike Western epistemologies which posit that knowledge stems from science and books, Absolon (2010) argues that indigenous epistemology emerges from ancestral teachings that are spiritual and exist in the visions, dream ceremonies, songs, dances and prayers of indigenous people. This implies that indigenous knowledge is lived, experiential and enacted knowledge.
Despite the marginalisation that has forced indigenous knowledge to the periphery of mainstream society, Diale and Fritz (2007) argue that indigenous communities have managed to sustain their culturally rich histories and knowledge.
In a similar fashion to how it is acquired, traditional knowledge is stored and also passed on by elders from one generation to another by learning through various modes, which include language, music, dance, oral traditions, proverbs, myths, stories and religion (Omolewa, 2007). Absolon (2010) adds that traditional knowledge is also transmitted and passed on at ceremonies and that it is in this setting where important protocols are learned. According to Diale and Fritz (2007), initiation schools in the African context are considered as important sites of learning and transmission of indigenous knowledge. In these schools, elders or respected members of the community train young people in the African traditional
philosophies and way of life. To signify the position and role played by elders in this regard, Absolon (2010) states that elders are another cornerstone of indigenous knowledge and are essential to learning and teaching, and the passing on of teachings.
Njoki (2005) argues that instead of relying on explicit hypotheses, theories and laws, indigenous knowledge is spiritual, cumulative and collective, and is constantly reviewed. To clarify this position, Njoki (2005) further states that indigenous knowledge is the product of people’s direct experience with nature and its symbiotic relationship with the social world, and is very crucial for community survival. The discussion of other dimensions of African worldview to follow in the subsequent sections will show that spirituality is inherent in indigenous epistemology which, according to Absolon (2010), sees everything in relation to creation and the earth, and recognises that all life has spirit and is sacred. While not denying the material aspect of life, Mazama (2001) posits that the essence of life and of human beings from the indigenous epistemology is therefore spiritual.
This refers to the fundamental interconnectedness of all things in the universe (cosmology), which is discussed next.
3.3.1.2. Cosmology.
The term cosmology, according to Kanu (2013), is derived from the Greek words cosmos and logos meaning universe and science, and refers to the ‘science of the universe’. To add clarity to this definition, Udefi (2012) elaborates that the meaning of cosmology refers to the study of the origin, structure and development of the world or universe in its totality. A discussion of the actual origin of the universe is beyond the scope of this research and it would not do justice to the magnitude of the topic to cover it briefly in this thesis. Therefore, only ideas related to the beliefs of the African people about the universe, humans and existence in their totality will be discussed. Udefi (2012) posits that in African traditional societies, there is a belief that the universe is bifurcated into two, namely the sky and the earth. This author further states that the spirits or supernatural entities occupy the sky while the land is occupied by human beings and other entities like animals, plants, water and so forth.
According to Mkhize (2004), traditionally, Africans believe that all these entities in the universe are connected to one another. He states that in an African
belief system, it is thought that intricate webs of relationships exist between organisms and objects in a system where each organism is capable of influencing and being influenced by others. Some scholars perceive the arrangement of, and relations between, this complex system in terms of hierarchies (Semenya &
Mokwena, 2012). Regarding the ordering of the universe, Mkhize (2004) and Kanu (2013) state that inanimate objects and plants occupy the lowest level of hierarchy, animals occupy the next level, followed by ancestral spirits and human beings in the level above that, while God is at the apex of the hierarchy. God is referred to by different names in the different cultures. Mkhize (2008) as well as Semenya and Mokwena (2012) state that in South Africa God is called uMvelinqangi (the originator of all life) by the amaZulu, uQamatha (the omnipresent who lives in everything) by the amaXhosa, and Modimo (the one who dwells in the highest place) by the Basotho.
In an African worldview God is believed to have created everything, resides everywhere (omnipresent) and is all powerful (omnipotent). However, Mkhize (2008) cautions that it should be noted that in African mythology, God does not exist in complete isolation from the rest of creation; instead, a hierarchy of beings is assumed. Figure 3.1 below shows this hierarchical ordering of the world in African worldview. This African worldview is similar to a systemic viewpoint where the different parts of the system are believed to function together, and life is perceived to be in harmonious unity. In other words, within this hierarchy the different levels have an interdependent relationship, where each is influenced by the other (Semenya & Mokwena, 2012). This shows that the African worldview consists of both the spiritual and physical realms, which are separate but which maintain harmonious interaction. Being in harmony with the universe is explained as the principle of cosmic unity. According to Mkhize (2008), cosmic unity means that everything is perpetually in motion, influencing and being influenced by other factors. Therefore cosmology, from an African worldview, shows that harmony with nature, group orientation and interpersonal relationships are of prime importance and are highly valued among traditional Africans (Jackson & Sears, 1992).
Figure 3.1: A hierarchical ordering of the world in African cosmology
Source: Semenya and Mokwena (2012, p. 75) 3.3.1.3. Ontology.
Ontology refers to the study of the meaning and nature of being (Udefi, 2012). In Western cultures, the person is defined with reference to internal psychological attributes, such as thoughts and emotions, and the individual is thought to exist independently of the social order (Mkhize, 2006). However, the African worldview refutes the idea that persons can be defined by focusing only on certain physical or psychological characteristics of the lone individual (Menkiti, 1984). From an indigenous African perspective, a different conception of the self, and of the relationship between self and others, both the living and the dead, exists: the self is not understood in isolation from the collective (Honwana, 1998).
African indigenous thought defines personhood in terms of wholeness (Ramose, 2005). The concept of the self is based on the development of an individual’s personality in the relational and contextual setting of his or her community. This opposes Western orientations, which isolate the individual from his or her social setting in understanding a person’s sense of an individualised self (Semenya &
Mokwena, 2012).
It is apparent that in an African worldview, individuals cannot exist alone, but owe their existence to the ancestors, the entire community, and all of nature (Jackson & Sears, 1992). Ramose (2005) argues, however, that the African concept of person as wholeness does not deny human individuality as an ontological fact, but ascribes ontological primacy to the community through which the human
individuals come to know themselves and the world around them. According to this author, the human individual is therefore inextricably linked to the encompassing universe, and thus, the person in African traditional thought is regarded simultaneously as a physical and a metaphysical being. The person, in Mkhize’s (2006) view, is thus extended in space and time and is embedded in social and communal relationships. An indigenous African view of the person can be summed up in the statement: I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am (Menkiti, 1984). The African proverb Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, literally meaning‘a person is a person because of another person’, reflects the emphasis that is placed on the close relationship between the individual and the community (Berg, 2003b). As a result, some authors conclude that in African cultures, without relationships with the wider community one is not a person (Verhoef & Michel, 1997).
3.3.1.4. Axiology.
Axiology stems from the Greek words axios meaning worth and logos which means science (Obasi, 2002). Axiology is therefore defined as the science of values, that is, the study of what people value or what their values consist of (Karanja, 2008). According to Obasi (2002), axiology describes a fundamental value system that defines the relationship between humans and their environment.
Axiology is concerned with ideas about what a good life looks like and what is valued in life, both in moral terms as well as in terms of quality of life (de Witt, de Boer & Boersema, 2014). Every culture has its own sets of ethical customs, rules, taboos and morals. African societies believe that their morals originated with, or are tied to, God (Mbiti, 1969).
The fundamental axiological principle of being, communalism and harmony-with-nature are also central to the African worldview (Karanja, 2008). The discussion of ontology in the preceding paragraph shows that African values emphasise connectedness and interdependence over individualism. Myers (1987) notes that, in terms of axiology, Africans place the highest value on interpersonal relationships among people. Rather than the survival of the fittest, African axiology reflects values based on the general guiding principle of the survival of the entire community and a sense of cooperation, interdependence and collective responsibility (Cobbah, 1987). Indigenous Africans believe that the Supreme Being (God) created the cosmos. Although God is also believed to be everywhere,
Olumbe (2008) suggests that there is a strong belief among Africans that God is far removed from human beings and the earth, and resides away in the farthest heavens. According to African traditions, one can gain access to the Supreme Being through intermediaries such as the spirits or the ancestors (Ross & Deverell, 2010). Spiritualism, in terms of Hadebe’s (1986) thought regarding the African worldview, refers to the belief that there is life after death where the person continues to live as an ancestral spirit, the living-dead. It is thus understood, as Ramose (2005) argues, that death discontinues the existence of those beings departed from the world of the living only with regard to the concrete, bodily and everyday life as people know it, but death does not totally discontinue the life of these departed beings. Baloyi and Makobe-Rabothata (2013) further argue that from an African perspective death is seen as a natural transition from the visible to the invisible spiritual ontology where the spirit, the essence of the person, is not destroyed but moves to live in the spirit world as an ancestor. Ancestors are guardians of the traditions and intermediaries between God and the community (Schmidt, 2005). This shows the value of the belief in the existence of a connection between the living and the living dead, and there are a series of rituals that are performed in traditional African societies to establish this connection.
It is worth noting that some spirits, in an African worldview, are considered good and are therefore honoured while others are evil and are to be avoided (Olumbe 2008). Explaining how some spirits end up being good and others evil, Kanu (2013) states that people who are considered to have lived their lives in good moral standing are believed to go to the spirit land to become ancestors when they die, on the one hand. On the other hand, those who lived bad lives and died before they reached a ripe old age are sent to an intermediate state, which is thought to be between the spirit-land and the land of the living, where they live as frustrated, restless and evil spirits (Kanu, 2013).