Sustainable development and its derivative, sustainable tourism, can be intuitively appealing and is generally adopted by many international organisations, governments and enshrined in legislation (Wall, 2002). However, Wall (2002) states that these concepts have been much criticised due to lack of precision and the difficulties associated with their implementation. There may be significant differences of judgement between local practitioners and external experts over what practices or which livelihood combinations are sustainable (Rennie and Singh, 1995). The notions of sustainable development and sustainable tourism have conceptual deficiencies and have not proven to be good practical guides in the development of more productive and resilient societies particularly in marginal communities where the need to move towards sustainability may be particularly challenging (Tao and Wall, 2009). Mowforth and Munt (1998: 11) debate over Third World tourism impacts:
Third World tourism where it is often argued that existing forms of mass tourism development are unsustainable in terms of the negative impacts on the environment, the way in which it corrupts and bastardises local cultures and the manner in which any potential economic benefits are frittered away as a result of the First World ownership of much of the tourism industry globally.
It is from this negative view that much new tourism attempts to redress the impacts of tourism and establish alternative forms of new tourism which will be environmentally, economically and culturally sustainable (Mowforth and Munt, 1998). In other words, there is a global
consciousness emerging in the shared phenomenal worlds as elaborated by Hoogvelt (1997) and Robertson (1995). Moreover, Goeldner and Ritchie (2006) imply that tourism has long been seen as a renewable industry that which is to be greatly preferred over the traditional smokestack industries of the manufacturing age. Fennell (2003) asserts that tourism’s international significance as an engine for economic growth makes it particularly relevant for sustainable development. Liu (2003) argues that sustainable tourism requires both the sustainable growth of tourism’s involvement to the economy and society and the sustainable use of resources and environment. However, neither can be obtained without a sound understanding and appropriate management of tourism demand (Liu, 2003). Shaw and Williams (2002) draw attention to the discourse on sustainable tourism which is political, social and economic and has direct links to the agencies operating in tourism.
According to Saayman and Saayman (2006), sustainable tourism can be seen as flowing from the notion of sustainable development and encompasses a set of principles, business methods and policy prescriptions relevant to the tourism industry. Fennell and Dowling (2003) maintain that sustainable tourism development can be seen as the management of all resources that fulfils economic, social and aesthetic needs at the same time maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. Laarman and Gregersen (1994) point out that sustainable tourism policy must incorporate the following three features:
first, national support and planning in advance; second, appropriate pricing and revenue policies;
and third, participation of locals who must also benefit. The World Tourism Organisation (WTO, 2001) has a preference for the following definition of sustainable tourism development which meets the needs of tourists and host as well as protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future in relation to managing of all resources in such a manner that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential processes, biological diversity and life support systems.
Prosser (1994) discusses four forces of social change that are effective when assessing sustainable tourism: dissatisfaction with existing products; growing environmental awareness and cultural sensitivity; realisation by the host regions of the precious resources they possess and their vulnerability; and the changing attitudes of developers and tour operators. Goeldner and Ritchie (2006) contend that the tourism industry needs to identify an action agenda and allocate
responsibility for its implementation in order to move toward the goal of sustainable tourism.
Bramwell and Lane (1993) support this positive approach which intends to reduce the tension and hostility created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, tourists, the environment and the host communities so that the long term capacity and quality of both natural and human resources can be established. One key to sustainable development of tourism in a community is the inclusion of stakeholders (Byrd et al., 2009). In addition, Byrd et al. (2009) assert that a clear understanding of the attitudes and interests of stakeholders is a crucial precursor to the planning and management of sustainable tourism.
The more local residents gain from tourism the more they will be motivated to protect the area’s natural and cultural heritage and support tourism activities (Liu, 2003). Communities that use or plan to use tourism as an economic development tool to diversify their economy must develop policies for the sustainable development of the community (Byrd et al., 2009; De Oliveira, 2003;
Puczko and Ratz, 2000; Southgate and Sharpley, 2002; Yuksel et al., 1999).
Sustainable tourism is not without its critics (Fennell, 2003). According to Hunter (1995), the current approach to sustainable tourism development is flawed since it condones the planning and management of tourism in a manner inconsistent with the design of sustainable development.
Pigram (1990) suggests that the tourism industry should adopt a safe minimum standard approach to development which will minimise the risk that irreversible changes will exclude development opportunities for future generations. Shaw and Williams (2002: 299) state:
A final consideration must be given to the role of increasing numbers of non- governmental organisations (NGOs) and other organisations that present themselves as guardians of the environment. Their rhetoric now shares a common language based on areas in Brundtland and the various Earth Summits of the 1990s. However, there is lack of clarity in the strategies of many organisations and how they interact with tourism agencies.
Cater (1993) recognises three key objectives for sustainable tourism: meeting the needs of the host population in respect of improving living standards both in the short and long term;
satisfying the demands of a growing number of tourists; and safeguarding the natural environment in respect to achieving both of the previous aims. Liu (2003) maintains that to be successful and sustainable, tourism development requires the involvement of various government
departments, public and private sector companies, community groups and experts. McCool (1985: 9) points out that for sustainable tourism to be triumphant humans should consider the following:
• how tourists value and use natural environments;
• how communities are enhanced through tourism;
• identification of tourism’s social and ecological impacts; and
• management of these impacts.
Sustainable tourism, according to Macbeth (1994), is more reactionary than proactive in nature.
McKercher (1993: 13) lists four main reasons why tourism is vulnerable to unsustainable practices:
• tourism is not recognised as a natural resource-dependent industry;
• the tourism industry is invisible, particularly in urban areas;
• tourism is electorally weak with little support from government; and
• there is a distinct lack of leadership motivating the industry, which makes tourism susceptible to attacks from other land users.
There is an urgent need to develop policies and measures that are not only theoretically sound but also practically feasible (Liu, 2003). Moreover, researchers from varying academic and ideological backgrounds should adopt an interdisciplinary approach which will facilitate the development of a more consistent body of theory, techniques, beliefs and attitudes among scholars and proceed towards a more scientific platform (Faulkner and Ryan, 1999). However, Muller (1994) argues that many researchers and critics have to come to the realisation that we are reaching saturation point and lots of advice but too few agents with limited resources and very little time to act. Medina (2005) explains that a criterion for sustainable tourism should include indicators of social and economic sustainability adding up to indicators of environmental sustainability. In addition, Wall (1997) has argued that for tourism to contribute to sustainable development it must be economically viable, environmentally sensitive and culturally appropriate, and the forms that this might take are likely to vary with location.