2.2 Key concepts
2.2.1 Tourism
It is difficult to define tourism since any such phenomenon that is intricately interwoven into the fabric of life economically, socio-culturally and environmentally and relies on primary, secondary and tertiary levels of production and service, is complicated to define in simplistic terms (Fennell, 2003). Numerous studies focus on one or more of the following characteristics of the tourist (income, lifestyle, education), characteristics of the tour (duration, number of countries or places visited), mode of organisation (individual or all-inclusive package), type of facilities used (for example, visiting friends and relatives, business, holiday, conference) (Okech, 2004).
Tourism has a reputation to be the world’s largest and fastest growing legitimate industry (Hill et al., 2006). Tourism is not a new phenomenon, although the serious study of the subject is relatively recent (Butler, 2009). Tourist activities have been traced back to Greek and Roman times and to the beginnings of widespread mass tourism in Victorian times (Towner, 1996).
Additionally, the social legislation of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in many countries provided (i) guaranteed paid holidays, (ii) shorter working periods to employees, (iii) continued improvements in transportation and reduced travel costs, and (iv) greater availability of tourist destinations. These factors have contributed to the development and spread of tourism across the globe (Butler, 2009). This growth has tended to be evolutionary in the sense that the nature of the spread of tourism through populations and countries was gradual and predictable, building on existing social and economic infrastructures and following a consistent pattern in allowing an increasing proportion of people to participate in tourism, both internationally and domestically (Butler, 2009).
Currently, tourism is more about profit than development that addresses local issues (Cole and Razak, 2009). Structural changes related to tourism have been clearly present in the development of tourism throughout the last two decades (Saarinen, 2005). In addition, tourism consists of a high-growth sector, driven by enhanced affluence and increasing leisure time (Hill et al., 2006).
Although tourism is intensely depoliticised, the character of tourism combined with basic aspects of the international system sets up distribution tendencies, patterns and paradoxes at the local, national and international levels (Cole and Razak, 2009). Craik (1995) refers to governments as
embracing tourism as the industry of the future and are eager that the benefits will overshadow the costs.
However, Holden (2005: 149) states:
The basis of the concept of tourism as a form of imperialism is that it represents an expansion of a nation’s economic and political interests to other countries.
Predominantly, the flow of this political and economic expansion is from western countries to less-developed ones. In the context of the political relationship of tourism between the developed and the developing worlds, this can be viewed as a relationship between the dominant and subordinate.
The economic benefits of tourism persuade governments, local areas and commercial operators to consistently invest in the industry (Youell, 1998). In addition, in many countries international tourism has served as an effective mechanism to promote local and national development in terms of employment, infrastructural improvements and the enhancement of marginal economic areas (Hill et al., 2006).
Conservationists see tourism as a tool or vehicle to expand conservation areas (Saayman and Saayman, 2006) and in developing countries such as South Africa, nature-based tourism or ecotourism has proved to be an increasingly essential source of foreign exchange and a tool that can be used to attract investment (Wunder, 2000). As such, the tourism industry can be seen as being inclusive of a number of key elements such as facilities, accommodation, transportation and attractions that tourists depend on to achieve their universal, specific goals and needs within a destination (Fennell, 2003). The industry comprises of a number of different yet interlinked service industries and other support services (Paton, 1985).
Travel for pleasure has conventionally been categorised as adventure, relaxation, recreation, ecotourism, cultural and heritage tourism, cruise ships tourism and even medical tourism (Cole and Razak, 2009). According to the DEAT (1996: 5), tourism was defined as “all travel for whatever purpose that result in one or more nights being spent away from home”. Tourism is facilitated and mediated by public and private institutions ranging from travel agents to local chambers of commerce, national tourism offices and international agencies (Chambers, 1997).
Tourism covers all geographic scales from the global corporation to remote highland village to
the illegal beach vendor (Cole and Razak, 2009). Tourism seldom occurs in isolation since it competes for the use of scarce resources such as land, water, labour, energy and waste assimilation capacity with uses that require that some resources should not be consumed (Tao and Wall, 2009).
Brohman (1996) contends that tourism can be seen as a relative latecomer to post-World War two scholarly debates pertaining to issues of economic or sustainable development. Tourism knowledge has advanced by applying theories developed in other disciplines and so it is surprising that some research streams have been developed, tested and reported in leisure journals without attracting the attention of tourism researchers (Gross and Brown, 2008).
However, Gross and Brown (2008) suggest that considerations of the corresponding and contrasting qualities of activities undertaken in recreation and tourism contexts have engaged the interest of the respective research communities. Much of the interest by geographers in tourism and the domain of leisure studies can be traced or dated to an interest in tourism and recreation in tourism by geographers that mirrors the pre-1945 development of the discipline and the post-war boom in many countries as a subject of study in Universities and other institutes of higher education (Hall and Page, 2006).
In many successive theories and observations, the tourist is frequently portrayed as a gullible and indiscriminating individual who can easily be led to believe that the superficial and stereotypical is representative of the real thing (Chambers, 2009). Furthermore, tourism theory lags well behind its conveyance and Chambers (2009) talks about recent trends which point to a significant increase in the numbers and kinds of people travelling, as well as a dramatic expansion of both domestic and international travel among citizens of rapidly developing, economically emergent nations. It is natural for tourism scholars to abstract tourism from the broader context in which it occurs with the aim of focusing on specialisation (Tao and Wall, 2009). Tao and Wall (2009) further argue that if the links between tourism and other sectors are not adequately appreciated and if the context in which tourism occurs is overlooked then understanding is likely to be partial. Recognising the importance of the links between tourism and other activities provides guidance that tourism should be seen as a tool for development and not as an end in itself (McCool and Moisey, 2001). According to Tao and Wall (2009: 90):
Although tourism may dominate the economies of many destinations and the incomes of many individuals, it is seldom their only source of sustenance. This is true of most communities and is particularly the case for individuals in many marginal economies. In such situations, many people may not have a conventional job but may farm, fish, hunt, do odd jobs, migrate and send back remittances, obtain unemployment benefits and, generally, support themselves through multiple means.
Furthermore, these means may vary with the seasons, and may involve a mix of activities that span the subsistence, barter and cash economies. The introduction of tourism may result in conflict with such activities, displacing them or making them less viable, or it may fit into the existing situation as a contemporary activity, contributing to economic diversification and forging positive linkages with existing forms of production. Off course, it may also do both at the same time.
The tourism industry is highly seasonal and this impact of seasonal demand variation is one of the dominant policy and operational concerns of tourism interests in both the public and private sectors (Baum and Lundtorp, 2001). Many researchers have noted that the tourism industry has a significant impact on regional economic development (Briedenhann and Wickens, 2004; Deying et al., 1997; Dwyer and Forsyth, 1998; Dwyer et al., 2003), especially in developing countries and regions (Durbarry, 2004). There is considerable literature on the economic, environmental and socio-cultural impacts of tourism which is replete with seemingly contradictory observations with researchers reporting both positive and negative findings in each of these categories (Wall and Mathieson, 2006). Tourism is not a panacea for economic decline yet it has the potential to create both positive and negative impacts (Byrd et al., 2009). Ill-conceived and poorly planned tourism development can wear down the very qualities of the natural and human environment that attract visitors in the first place (Inskeep, 1991).
Today, the tourism industry comprises of full scale businesses from international hotel chains and major airlines to intermediaries, for example, travel agencies to small local accommodation, restaurants, tour operators, independent guides and other informal activities (Cole and Razak, 2009). Effective tourism marketing requires an understanding of the existing market segments (Park and Yoon, 2009). Thus, destination managers and operators should periodically (such as annually) survey their tourist populations and use the information to better understand the level of interest that tourists have in the product and service provision in their particular location (Gross and Brown, 2008). New categories, market segments and corresponding tourist products are devised persistently which reflect new fads, changing technologies, the opening up of new regions and different wealth and demographic structures (Cole and Razak, 2009). Destination
marketers as discussed by Gross and Brown (2008) will benefit more by fully understanding the role of place attachment in the consumption behaviour of tourists and this will be assisted by additional testing of the model in other destinations.
As one of the world’s largest industries, Fennell (2003) maintains that tourism is linked with many of the prime sectors of the world’s economy. The size and number of tourists and tourist destinations has continuously grown exponentially (Cole and Razak, 2009). Thus, Scheyvens (2002) feels that outright condemnation of tourism in the Third World seems inappropriate when many communities are struggling to find means of improving their wellbeing and have identified tourism as a key strategy for development, especially at the local level. According to the DEAT (2002: 7):
One of the key challenges for business, local government and educators is to develop knowledge amongst the historically disadvantaged regarding what tourism is, and how it can benefit local communities... Communities need to be involved in the planning, decision-making and the development of tourism; and in all operational aspects of the industry as tourists, employees and entrepreneurs. Social exclusion has contributed to the historically narrow, myopic focus of the industry in South Africa. Responsible tourism is about enabling and encouraging historically disadvantaged local communities to access lucrative tourism markets.
Foreign leakage is also a key challenge. A foreign exchange leakage takes place when companies that produce and supply the tourism market are owned in a different country (Brohman, 1996;
Sinclair, 1998). According to the DEAT (1996: 9), there are a number of factors that limit the effectiveness of the tourism industry in South Africa to play a more meaningful role in the national economy and some of the key constraints are identified below:
• tourism has been inadequately resourced and funded;
• myopic private sector;
• limited integration of local communities and previously neglected groups into tourism;
• inadequate tourism education, training and awareness;
• inadequate protection of the environment;
• poor service;
• lack of infrastructure, particularly in rural areas;
• a ground transportation sector not geared to service tourists; and
• lack of inclusive, effective national, provincial and local structures for the development, management and promotion of the tourism sector
Fennell (1999) and Poon (1993) suggest that a strong growth of nature-based tourism and the decrease in the relative significance of mass tourism have been emphasised in academic literature. Saarinen (2005) emphasises that this move does not indicate the end of mass tourism but the appearance of new forms of tourism and tourists in the market.