view is in contrast to the hyper-globalist proposition, which argues that there is a removal of nation state. Hopkins (2006) notes that the transformationalists' argument that asserts inequalities have always been there and their nature have remained constant are in fact correct in this assertion. However the economic gap and other inequalities have become more visible because the poor and rich live adjacent to each and diverse conditions are observable.
In summary transformationalists are critical of hyper-globalism and argue that there is a more dynamic picture, however they differ from sceptics in that they acknowledge that globalisation is changing the world, even though not at the extent that hyper globalist claim.
This section has been able to present a brief synopsis of the different globalisation theories as articulated by diverse writers. The next section will discuss different forces of globalisation that are shaping the world and have a direct or indirect impact of the different regions developmental objectives.
the historical inevitability of globalisation as a result of technology implies that individuals have limited choice in the neo-liberal economic policies. This also has an important political function of facilitating the need for countries to adapt in order to survive or prosper (Steger, 2002).
“Technology’s highest purpose lies in helping to bring about a better world, that is, in creating systems that are a benefit to society. Historically, technology has enabled nations to expand the economic pie so that the standard of living for all is increased. Economic globalization makes it imperative that these aspirations can be achieved through increased international cooperation, marking a permanent transformation in the engineering endeavour” (Castells, 1996: 375).
Against the background of Castells' observation, it is apparent that one of the goals of technology is to create better living environments, where all people in the world live in harmony, while simultaneously sharing innovative ideas through technology to improve the standard of living within the global village. Technological advancement is one of the main driving forces of globalisation. It has stimulated global trade connections which act as a wedge, enabling economic activity in new areas, thereby strengthening globalisation. Beck (2006) argues that technological advancement has improved accessibility to areas that were perceived as being remote and therefore has opened up new areas of trade, along with other political, social and economic opportunities. The tremendous spread of technology has been diffused worldwide via rapidly expanding world market connections. Consequently this has led to people from previously remote areas to share and use the same technology for a number of activities.
Advanced technology has also led to sophisticated telecommunication systems leading to the annihilation of space through remote communications, such as telephonic and cell phones conversations and cyber communication (i.e. Facebook, Mxit, BBM, Twitter and other social networks). Castells (1996) maintains that global electronic communications is generating a culture of real 'virtuality', where the new communication system radically transforms space and time. He maintains that “localities become disembodied from their cultural, historical, geographic meaning, and reintegrated into functional networks …
inducing a space of flows that substitutes for the space of places” (Castells, 1996: 375). For Castells, “the space of flows of the Information Age dominates the space of places of people’s cultures”, with the result being that “the network society disembodies social relationships … because it is made up of networks of production, power, and experience, which construct a culture of virtuality in the global flows that transcend time and space” (Castells, 2000: 369- 370).
Beck (2006) further argues that the global dispersion of technology has, to large extent, stimulated the massive network of telecommunications equipment and services. He maintains that sales via the electronic network have jumped from $788 billion in 1995 to the trillion-dollar mark in 1998. This is a true manifestation of how the forces of globalisation such as improved telecommunication, incubated by advanced technology are driving this process. Experts predict that sales in communications technology will grow to seven percent (7%) per year. This figure is double the rate of world economic growth and will result in the further strengthening of globalisation due to the unprecedented access and availability of technological advances (Went, 2000).
Secondary forces of globalisation like (WTO) World Trade Organization’s (WTO) International Telecommunications Agreement (ITA) and Trade Related Aspect on Intellectual Property (TRIPS) are also increasing the impetus of the this phenomenon. Wolf (2004) writes that the main factors backing the momentum of free trade and telecommunication are global agreements such as the WTO, ITA and TRIPS. Such agreements have facilitated the merging of all markets into one massive global market. This, in turn, has allowed the increased use of telecommunication products and services as driving forces to globalisation.
Improved transportation systems and networks have also formed part and parcel of the forces driving the process of globalisation. Development in the motor industry, railway, airplane and ship has stimulated easy and faster movement of goods, services and people, through annihilation of space and decreasing the duration (time spent) in travelling between the origin and destination. These developments have led to the “shrinking” of the world making places seem closer to each other (Friedman, 2006). Consequently this has inevitable
led to the fostering of metaphors such as; global community, global village and the annihilation of time and space to explain this notion of globalisation.
In summary the forces of globalisation are those factors that impact directly or indirectly on the process itself and thus stimulate its impetus and growth tremendously. Having discussed some of the main forces of globalisation, the next section seeks to discuss the precedents of Local Economic Development globally. A particular focus will be the impact of this process on case study areas within rural areas.