Qualitative research is often criticised for lacking scientific rigour compared to experimental quantitative research (Mays & Pope, 1995; Cope, 2014). However, Shenton (2004) and
Silverman (2017) point out that qualitative researchers can incorporate measures of trustworthiness that match the scientific merit of rigour and validity of quantitative studies.
Lincoln and Guba (1985) identified four elements to ensure the trustworthiness of qualitative research, namely: credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. These elements, together with researcher reflexivity are described in more detail below.
4.7.1 Credibility
The credibility of this study was established by making sure that all procedures employed were in accordance with qualitative research methods, such as the construction of research questions, the data collection process, and the data analysis process. The use of open-ended questions during the telephonic individual interviews and online focus groups, together with thematic analysis accentuated exploration of the participants’ experiences and provided detailed descriptions of the research phenomenon. This together with frequent communication with school principals and teachers via email and WhatsApp, developed a sense of familiarity, which Shenton (2004) alleges establishes a relationship of trust between the researcher and participants, thus resulting in credible and effective engagement. Even though the study made use of purposive sampling, during the engagement sessions the participants volunteered to contribute at their convenience. Shenton (2004) affirmed that this approach builds credibility as research selection bias is avoided. Since interviews were conducted telephonically using convenience sampling, the study avoided stereotypical behaviours, assumptions, and deliberate exclusions.
Shenton (2004) emphasised the importance of the selection process, claiming that credibility of qualitative studies is strengthened using convenience sampling, as this method provides greater assurance of unbiased results. Although Shenton (2004) warned that convenience sampling could lead to over-representation or under-representation of particular groups in a sample, Guba (1981) suggested that the use of triangulation, a combination of different research methods to explore the same phenomenon, ultimately compensates for the limitations in the sampling process.
This study implemented telephonic individual interviews with photo elicitation and online WhatsApp video call group discussions with vignettes, to further enhance credibility.
Participants were also notified at various points of the engagement session of their choice to withdraw from the study at any time without repercussions. Shenton (2004) stated that data collection processes are most credible when participants are genuinely willing to participate
and prepared to share information. To maintain rapport, I reminded the participants of their anonymity during all sessions. As a result, participants were at ease to share their ideas, experiences, and understandings without apprehension or the fear of losing credibility with colleagues, school management, and principals. Moreover, I also scheduled regular debriefing sessions with my mentor and supervisor where alternative approaches to improve my study were discussed, and this, according to Shenton (2004), increases the credibility of the study.
4.7.2 Transferability
Erlandson (1993) noted that generalisation in qualitative research is not possible as findings are defined by a specific context. However, Shenton (2004) contrasted this by saying that although a phenomenon is unique, it also falls with a broader context, therefore advocating for the prospect of transferability in qualitative studies. To ensure transferability, I established the context of the study with detailed descriptions and provided sufficient background information on the chosen research site. Gill (1979) initially emphasised the importance of the researcher conveying contextual data such as location and environments, claiming that this allows for transference. The sample size also contributed to the transferability of this study, as I gained thick descriptions of transgender identities during the data collection process. The responses reflect multiple realities present in the primary schools, which contributed to the study and assisted in the understanding of the phenomenon.
4.7.3 Dependability
In order for future researcher/s to repeat a similar study, although not necessarily obtain the exact same results, the study had to ensure dependability. To achieve this, Lincoln and Guba (1985) recommend the use of overlapping methods such as interviews and focus groups, but emphasise a detailed methodological plan. By clearly laying out the processes, methods, and strategies used in the study, future researchers can view the work as a prototype (Lincoln &
Guba, 1985; Shenton, 2004). For instance, in this study, the research design and implementation thereof carefully described the details of data collection in the field, as well as attached reflections on the effectiveness of the methodological processes undertaken. Doing so provided an audit trail for future studies.
4.7.4 Confirmability
Shenton (2004) recognised the difficulties that researchers face in terms of objectivity and claimed that qualitative research methods are prone to research bias. As such, confirmability is adopted by qualitative researchers to ensure that all the experiences and views of participants are represented, rather than the preferences of the researcher (Patton, 1990; Moser and Korstjens, 2018). Shenton (2004) explained that triangulation promotes confirmability in qualitative studies and reduces the effect of researcher bias. By using a combination of individual interviews and focus group discussions, I was able to phrase questions in various forms in order to confirm the teachers’ views on transgender identities.
The transcripts derived from the interviews and focus group discussion displayed the data gathered and allowed for step-by-step procedures to be followed. Moser and Korstjens (2018) referred to this process as ‘audit trails’ and claimed that this strategy guarantees dependability and confirmability through research finding transparency.
One more strategy to ensure transparency and confirmability in a qualitative study is reflexivity. Miles et al., (1994) considered the extent to which a researcher is able to admit their own predisposition as a fundamental part of confirmability. In the following section, I discuss researcher reflexivity in more detail and explain how I strove to maintain reflexivity during the research.
4.7.5 Researcher reflexivity
McMillan and Schumacher (2010) describe reflexivity as the “rigorous self-examination of the researcher”. Raheim et al., (2016) claim that researcher analytic self-awareness, experience, and reason needs to be untainted by personal opinions, beliefs, and views. To ensure reflexivity, the researcher must provide admission of beliefs and assumptions. For instance, due to my prior engagement in primary schools in the Chatsworth area, I had preconceived ideas of teachers’ attitudes and behaviour toward LGBTIQ+ identities.
This had to do mainly with my experience as a student teacher and my personal observations of gender discrimination in the primary school environment. I witnessed the principal of a primary school shame learners by referring to them as ‘gays’. The comments
“we do not want these funny haircuts, like gays, in this school” or “we do not want gays walking around in this school”, were made with reference to the boys’ who did not adhere to the dress code. Irrespective of these prior observations, I approached teacher participants with a neutral stance throughout the research process, sustaining a level of trust, comfort, and
respect for various opinions, thus facilitating the trustworthiness of this study. Moser and Korstjens (2018) emphasised the importance of qualitative researchers remaining reflexive throughout the data collection process, as unchecked predispositions directly influence the organisation, analysis, and interpretation process.
When the topic was first introduced to the principals, there was a level of uncertainty and interest on my behalf. I was confronted with various questions by both principals whose schools are participating in the study. For instance, “Why did you choose this topic?”, “Is talking about this intimidating?”, and “What exactly are you looking for?”. These questions illustrated the curiosity of the principals, and were repeated by the teacher participants on more than one occasion. After one interview a teacher asked: “So why this topic?” and then commented further: “I am glad you are doing this and not some boring topic”.
Although the teachers were co-operative, being a young female student approaching participants immersed in a conservative community elicited a level of nervousness and uncertainty, as conversations around gender, sexuality, and transgender identity are not discussed in my own home. Despite the initial unease, I found that all the teacher participants were curious and vocal about the research questions and my reasoning for conducting this study. The teachers conveyed a welcoming and friendly disposition, and even encouraged the commencement of the study in spite of the COVID-19 regulations.
Fineefter-Rosenbluh (2017) pointed out that through multiple complexities the researcher may influence the responses given by the participants. However, due to the use of telephonic individual interviews and online group discussions, participants’ views on transgender identities were unaffected by the researcher. Farooq and De Villiers (2017) highlight that telephonic communication is more suitable as unknown influences such as physical appearances, or the age of individuals, do not entice particular responses.
Additionally, telephonic interaction eliminates interpreting body languages and urges participants and the researcher to pay careful attention to what is being said during the engagement sessions. In this way, the participants are free to respond to questions as they find appropriate without any pressure to answer in a particular way. Overt participant comfort was displayed in the engagement session as teachers disclosed exactly how they felt about the topic even though it was not in line with other teachers in the same school. Since I was not employed at either school, I was able to maintain my impartiality and objectivity.
I also kept a diary to make notes of any additional information given to me after the official engagement session was completed. These notes also helped me to interpret the
participants’ thoughts, assumptions, and understanding. When the interviews were transcribed, I attached the notes I thought would be useful to develop a holistic description of the participant. For example, how many years each teacher taught at Chatsworth schools; how many years in primary schools; and what grades they are or have taught. These additional notes assisted me to better acknowledge and understand the participants, and helped me avoid any bias. The complete profile of participants proved useful when analysing the data and creating themes. Moser and Korstjens (2018) point out that a certain degree of researcher bias is inevitable in qualitative research. However, through reflexivity the researcher can become aware of their influence on the study. In this regard, I am aware that I had a certain degree of influence on the participants. Nevertheless, I made a concerted effort to limit biases and ethical dilemmas that transpired in this study.
As will all research projects that involve human subjects, specific ethical guidelines need to be followed. I will now discuss the ethical considerations adhered to in this study.