Chapter 3- Literature Review
3.8 The Conceptual framework
In general, migration and remittances are a significant aspect of livelihoods in rich areas as migrants search for a better living. “Migration is essentially a response to structural disequilibria between and within sectors of an economy, or between countries. Economic disparities between and within countries strongly
influence migration” (Adepoju, 2006:26). As a result, essentially migration and remittances are potentially valuable to the socio economic situations of various nations (IOM, 2012). This part of the dissertation briefly explore concepts of migration and remittances.
3.8.1 Migration
Migration across and within countries and continents has been initiated ever since the origin of human evolution. Thus the amount of migration in the modern world is larger than ever it was in the past (Nzabamwita, 2015). Migration concept is appropriate to both humans and animals depending on the situation but there is no existing universal acknowledged description of migration (Hristoski and Sotiroski 2012:3). In this context, migration is described as “the movement of persons away from their place of usual residence, either across an international border or within a state” (IOM, 2011:135). This movement is facilitated by such reasons and can either be voluntary or involuntary/forced.
Voluntary migration is where migrants are well up-to-date, capable and willing to migrate (Weeks, 2011).
This encompasses of households or individuals who prepare for migration and able to finance it costs.
On the other hand, forced migration do not involve features of willingness to migrate but people migrate in their usual places of residence against their will due to environmental and safety reasons (Webster, 2017). These involves natural disasters and persecution that threatens the lives of individuals, families or communities. Additionally the other reason may be development-induced displacement. Unlike involuntary migrants, among voluntary migrants, a dominant reason that encourage migration is the job market. In the view of Adepoju (2006), actually the absolute increase in the figures of people enduring hardships as well as developing and broadening inequality in incomes and opportunities within countries, prompt people to migrate. Hence people tactically allocate their accumulated wealth to destinations where there will be better rewards for them and their household’s improvement (Massey et al, 1994). This means spatial location of economic opportunities and jobs results in migration and largely form the direction of its movements.
Conceptually, the international and internal migrations takes place in addition to one another. In the assertion Adepoju (2006) of both international and internal migration are the results of multifaceted social and economic factors, while the key determination is migrant’s pursuit of better economic well-being. It has been pointed out that migration provides better opportunities for socio-economic development to migrants and their households (Dzomba, 2014). This means economic development encourage both international and internal migration especially when people have means and willingness to migrate.
Migration has been conceptualized as an enduring circulation process in origin and destination areas.
The literature of migration over the years has been encompassed by several concepts ranging from circular migration, labour migration, rural-urban migration, commercial migration and other (Adepoju, 2006). In these concepts, the concept that best capture the principle and specificity of migration dynamics in Africa is the circular migration (Adepoju, 2006). Circular migration starts and end at household as migrants move back and forth between area of origin and destination across and within national boundaries. The circular labour or temporary migration is a specific form of migration, which emerged to be a well-known feature in South Africa (Dzomba, 2014), motivating migration between rural and urban.
Rural urban migration- migration has been characterized by migrants from rural to urban areas in southern Africa. Ever since the discovery of mines in South Africa, people have migrated from rural to urban areas in search of better of opportunities (Stapleton, 2015). It can be said that migration to cities is a response to perceived greater jobs and other economic opportunities. Persistent disparities and difficulties in economic opportunities between poorer rural and richer urban areas increase migration in Africa and elsewhere (Adepoju, 2006). Further noted that individuals move when they are incapable to fulfill their desires within the economic opportunities in their areas of origin. Additionally, individual and household characteristics encourage the decision to migrate among migrants (Schoorl et al, 2000). On the other hand, migrant networks has further facilitated migration. Migrant networks offer support for individuals and families before, during and after migration (Schoorl, 2000). These are power connections for migrants to succeed in destination and send remittances back home.
3.8.2 Remittances
Remittances refer to the money and goods that are transmitted to households by migrant workers working outside their communities of origin. They are “private international monetary transfers that migrants make, individually or collectively” (IOM, 2011:178). According to Faist cited in (Nzabamwita, 2015:20) “the flow of money, goods, knowledge and universal ideas - called remittances, are prevalent - and can have a positive effect on what it is called development effect in the countries of emigration.” It is documented that two thirds of circular migrants are employed in jobs for payment and two thirds of these migrant workers, remit something back home in rural (Collinson et al, 2006). Remittances earned and transferred by migrants can be either tangible or intangible. Those that are tangible consist of remittances like cash and goods, whereas intangible remittances consist of knowledge and value. It is said that there are different kinds of remittances’.
It is argued that remittances have been firmly embedded in the historical development of migration structures. Remittances are conceptualized as cash, goods and social remittances. Cash and goods remittances are considered as reallocation of migrant earnings which offer additional source of income to households that allow them to consume or invest more than they use to (Nzabamwita, 2015). This agree with the findings that migrant remittances are persistent links among migrants and their households as well as community and countrywide levels, help keep up and improve livelihoods of poor households, by furnishing basic needs, paying basic services, education fees for siblings or children and healthcare in particular, investing in real estate and improving agricultural production (Adepoju, 2006; Dzomba, 2014). On the other hand social remittances are referred to “the innovative ideas, practices, mindsets, values and attitudes, norms of behaviour, cultural influence, work ethics and social capital (knowledge, experience and expertise) that migrants mediate and transfer from host to home country” (Nzabamwita, 2015:22). Further notes they include features of skills, personalities, worldviews and behaviors brought by migrants when returning home. Such channels are used to transfer remittances.
Formal and informal channels are categorized channels that transfer cash and goods remittances.
Though social remittances are transferred through a series of cross-linking modalities (Nzabamwita, 2015). Formal transfer channels are legal whereas informal remittances transfer channels are illegal and remittances sent via informal channels are estimated rather than counted due to unavailability of information. The transfer of remittances is discussed above from page 34-37.