3. BACKGROUND
3.2 The effects of apartheid on the urban landscape
3.2.1 The effects of apartheid on Durban’s spatial arrangement
Durban, during the apartheid era, is of pivotal importance since it was during this time where these problems were exaggerated. Spatial policies in Durban, during the apartheid
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era, have caused a multitude of problems (Davis, 1991, Hendler, 1991; Maharaj, 1997;
Singh, 2005). Although many of the apartheid acts were passed in the early 1950s, they intensified over the years and became pivotal strategies that reordered the spatial arrangement of Durban. The government in Durban believed, “that cities were the creation and preserve of whites, that the African presence should be temporary and limited to serving the interests of white citizens and that ruthless controls over African movement and contracts were the mainstay in maintaining a labour market convenient for the dominant interests of the city: in short a basis for a cheap labour system” (Purcell, 2006:
23). Durban’s economy, spatial design and neighbourhoods, in the 1960s, were differently arranged compared to the present spatial design of post-apartheid Durban (Davenport, 1991; Davis, 1991; Hendler, 1991; Isaacs, 1997; Maharaj, 1997). This section is an attempt to understand the spatial patterns of Durban during the apartheid era. This section also attempts to provide an explanation as to the reasons for the development of informal dwellings and how the apartheid government at that time tried to rectify the problem, by forced removals. Unpacking Durban’s spatial arrangement gives insight into the urban dynamics during the apartheid era, which this section attempts to unravel.
Durban, like most South African cities, was spatially planned on the basis of colour. The standard planned model of the apartheid city was a series of concentric circles of development and settlement, with geographic and social distance from the core as a perfect proxy for race (Schensul, 2006; Bond, 2008). The inner core of economic opportunity was surrounded by a residential ring of whites, who were provided access to the best benefits of city life (Schensul, 2006). White South Africans were situated in the urban core where they were able to enjoy these opportunities. A semi-peripheral area followed, made up of the middle racial tier, including Indians and coloureds, collected in townships, though usually of a better condition than black townships (Schensul, 2006). The final planned concentric ring was populated by the massive and extremely marginalized and under-served black population, settled in relatively high density townships lacking basic infrastructure and commercial activity and located as far as 15 to 20 kilometres away from core areas (Maylam 1996; Frescura 2001). These townships were planned to link seamlessly with rural “homeland” areas, and were originally built as temporary settlements for black South Africans (Mabin 1991). These distinctive zones were separated with the use of buffer zones. Different race groups were allocated designated areas in which they could live during the apartheid era (see Figure 3.1, which shows racial zoning in Durban).
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Blacks Buffer
Coloureds Indians Whites
Figure 3.1: Racial zoning in Durban (Schensul, 2006).
In Durban by the 1930, the municipality became concerned about the black belt of shack lands on the boundaries of Durban on every side (Maylam, 1982). The administration of informal settlements was a concern at that time a concern with regard to their administration. An increase of informal dwellings, led to the implementation of apartheid policies in order to address the issue of squatter settlements. Furthermore, a variety of legislation had not been implemented nationally to address the issue of squatter settlements. For example, the Health Act of 1919, the Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923, and the Slums Act of 1934 concentrated on the management of the slums to ensure public health (Ballard, 2004). However, it should be understood that these Acts were developed to help curb the problem of informal settlements in proximity to white residential areas.
However, although these regulations were implemented to keep the squatter settlements out of residential areas, especially white residential areas, poor implementation of these regulations allowed for the existing unplanned settlements to become more pronounced.
Due to urban population increases of the 1940s and 1950s, their severe economic oppression and the effects of the Native Reserves Act of 1913 and Urban Areas Act of 1923 (which has been explained in the previous section), the African population in Durban had already faced housing shortages (Purcell, 2006).
In 1950, the Durban City council appointed a Technical Sub-Committee to plan all of Durban’s areas, as per the Group Areas Act (Purcell, 2006). The Groups Areas Act in Durban forced different race groups in Durban to be relocated to designated areas that were
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associated with their particular race. Indians were considered to be better-off than Africans in Durban and they owned more highly-valued land, however, their complaints were not identical to Africans, and the Group Areas designations worked to emphasise these differences (Purcell, 2006).
In 1952, one estimate indicated that 90,000 Africans lived in shacks and while the City Council recognised this problem, it refused to address it (Purcell, 2006). Durban was rezoned, and (writing in 1958) demographers commented, “It seems probably that Government policy will be directed toward the entire removal of the African population from the city into the peripheral zones” (Purcell, 2006: 19). Black South Africans were most affected by the apartheid government, since the government advocated separate development for black South Africans from city centres. In addition, Durban City Councillor J. Bolton remarked, “The Government has made no provision for compensation. They are just not interested” (Purcell, 2006: 20-21). This was an unfair process of exclusion which the apartheid government did not even attempt to rectify.
Purcell (2006: 20-21) states: “Forced removals to nowhere, then, increased shack, informal, and unsafe settlements and increased the housing shortage in Natal”. Many Black South Africans were forced to move from their homes and had to resettle elsewhere due to the effect of the apartheid policies, such as Groups Areas Act. Purcell (2006) further emphasised that the Act was not only important for segregation but also for the racial and class tensions that it aggravated. Due to the pressure of separate development amongst the different race groups in Durban, political and social tensions arose amongst the majority racial group, namely the black Africans. This Act was to intensify the political, social and economic inequalities that the marginalised race groups encountered. Although the apartheid government thought that the implementation of this Act would solve the problem of informal settlements in residential areas, however, it only accentuated the problem.
Furthermore, Durban, much like South Africa’s other two largest cities, was planned for segregated residence, interaction, and social and economic development during the apartheid era (Schensul, 2006). It was structured and planned on a racial distinction that excluded certain individuals from certain areas. Durban, spatially engineered, was to separate the different races from each other. Its apartheid structure very closely follows the generic apartheid model (Schensul, 2007).
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In conclusion apartheid was an era that tried to retain racial segregation within many societies in South Africa. The pattern of forced removal and destruction was a common aspect that many individuals had to encounter in South Africa. It ensured that white South Africans were at the controls of a racial oligarchy that was developed on the suppression of black South Africans (Schensul, 2006). A near monopoly on money, power and influence were in the hands of a minority and they used this to either violently suppress the majority or, at best, transfer resources in order to stave off the inevitable revolution (Schensul, 2006). Apartheid intended to contain, fragment and seclude the majority of the population from benefits and equal opportunities to resources and employment opportunities. It can be described as a solidified process of inequalities. South African cities and especially Durban, were engineered to segregate and isolate (Schensul, 2006). However, the repercussion of this was a development of a complicated residential settlement pattern with many under resourced and informal residential spaces in the cities. Subsequently due to the rise of a new democratic political government, the apartheid policies have been dismantled and the democratic government presently is addressing the inaccuracies made by the past apartheid government. This will be addressed in the following section.