CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.4 PEER COUNSELLING RESEARCH
2.4.5 The Efficacy of Peer Counselling Programmes
A wealth of research indicates that peer counselling is generally effective. However, the reported success of peer counselling programmes is often based on subjective statements (Blaiss & Brusko, 1985). Few studies are only evaluative in nature. de Rosenroll (1989)
asserts that the lack of research into the effectiveness of peer counselling programmes may be in part due to the facilitators not being trained in basic research and evaluation skills. In addition, Tindall (1980 in Carr, Yanishewski& de Rosenroll, 1989) argues that facilitators may simply not have enough time to research the effectiveness of a peer counselling programme.
Rockwell & Dustin (1979) argue that evaluation is centred around the programme's goals.
Frequent goals for the peer counselling programme include:
• To increase the counselling effectiveness at the school. This may include peer
counsellors assisting with administrative functions, running career workshops, talking with other students and referring them for adult help if necessary.
• Increasing the visibility ofthe counselling programme at the school. This refers to the integration of the peer counselling programme in the school life and structure and the extent to which the programme is "known".
• Increasing the amount of counselling occurring within the school.
• The psychological growth of the trainee should be facilitated by such a programme.
Research into the effectiveness of peer counselling in secondary schools suggests some of the following:
• Peer counsellors' responses to problem situations or personal comments indicated an increase in appropriate and empathetic responses (McIntyre et a!., 1982)
• Peer counsellors were found to have increased self-satisfaction and well-being as well as benefiting from greater self-and other-awareness through learning new skills applicable to their life-context (Diver-Stamnes, 1991; Henriksen, 1991)
• Peer counselling improved the school climate (Blain & Brusko, 1985; Grady, 1980 in de Rosenroll, 1988)
• Peer counselling is perceived as a form of relief to the school counsellor and as a resource to the teachers (Blain& Brusko, 1985)
• Learners benefit in various ways from contact with peer counsellors (Fink, Grandjean, Martin& Bertollini, 1978 in de Rosenroll, 1989; Hamburg& Varenhorst, 1972 and McIntyre et a!., 1984)
• Eighth-grade peer group facilitators were found to be effective in helping sixth-grade problem behaviour students (Tobias & Myrick, 1999)
• Adolescents do perceive the helping skills used by trained peer counsellors as more facilitative than those of untrained helpers (McDowell, 1983)
• Two studies cited in Cowie & Sharp (1996) found that peer help was very beneficial for adolescents dealing with bereavement.
Diver-Starnnes (1991) suggests that peer counselling in an inner-city school is an effective tool to increase levels of support to the learners. He wrote: "Especially of note in terms of inner-city schools, the program seemed to offer the kind of support system perhaps
traditionally provided by family but all too often lacking in the ghetto" (p. 283).
Peer counselling has also been demonstrated to be helpful in adolescent discussions and decision-making around career issues (Young et aI., 1999; Rosenbaum & Laurie, 1994).
More broadly, peer counselling approaches have also been utilized successfully in working with the aged (France & Gallagher, 1984), with people who are
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positive (Baiss, 1989), and in promoting the mental health of police (Greenstone, Dunn& Leviton, 1995).Research on the practical and systemic implementation of peer counselling programmes at schools reveals a number of noteworthy findings. Henriksen (1991) found that 90% of the school staff felt they had a good understanding ofthe programme, whilst 60% felt peer counselling was benefiting the school. However, some teachers were unsure as to how peer counsellors could be utilized in their classrooms. Abu-Rasain & Williams (1999) found that teachers were generally unsupportive of the programme and were not enthusiatic to become involved with the peer counselling programme. Henrikson (1991), in his study of a peer counselling programme at a school, suggests that if teachers are given some direction about how to better untilize peer helpers in their classrooms the benefits of the peer helping programme will broaden.
Henriksen (1991) found that 13% of respondents in the study had talked with a peer counsellor. Abu-Rasain & Williams (1999) found that 12.6% of the school population had met with a peer counsellor. Morey et aI., (1989) found that lllost people only met with a peer counsellor once or twice. They also found that relationship issues were the most commonly reported concern for those girls who had seen a peer counsellor (family, friends and
boyfriend relationships) whilst the least frequently discussed topics included alcohol and drug
problems. With regards to the reasons that the learners met with the peer counsellors, Morey et aI., (1989) found that the learners perceived peer counselling to be most useful when discussing plans for the future and general school problems. Areas of least perceived helpfulness were in specific problem areas indicating that peer counsellors are less effective in dealing with and resolving particular problematic issues. Most students did not report feeling embarrassed to see a peer counsellor but half ofthese students were unsure that the peer counsellors would maintain their confidentiality. Girls in this study were much more likely to approach a peer counsellor than boys, which Morey et aI., (1989) attribute to the greater socialisation of females as confiders in others and vice versa. In a separate study, Robinson et aI., (1991) echoed a number of these findings in showing that more female than male students were assisted by peer counsellors. In addition family and school concerns were found to be the most common topics for discussion with peer counsellors.
2.4.6 Peer Counselling: The Criticisms and Recommendations
Peer support programmes are not without their criticisms. Many writers in the field have emphasised the need for caution in implementing such peer-led programmes. In addition, many writers have emphasised the need for rigorous and evaluative research to demonstrate the effectiveness ofthese programmes (Morey et aI., 1989).
Morey et aI., (1989) and Lewis and Lewis (1996) explored whether peer counsellors are expected to provide a service for which they are neither adequately prepared, nor mature enough to handle. Peer counsellors' involvement in concerns such as suicidal behaviour, eating disorders, severe relationship conflicts, coping with loss, or drug and alcohol abuse, are topics, they argue, for which adolescent peer counsellors are developmentally unprepared.
Lewis and Lewis (1996) note that:
Although our hearts often call out for immediate action, it seems only
prudent to be careful about the ways in which we address some of the very serious and volatile issues of childhood and adolescence. We need to have strong evidence that programs are safe before they are incorporated into school settings. Otherwise our best intentions may result in harm to the very children we intend to help (p. 312).
They suggest the following guidelines: Peer counsellors should be carefully selected; their roles should be limited to academic and developmental issues; and peer counsellors should
receive adequate training and supervision for those limited roles. In addition, peer helpers should be given clear direction on referring potentially serious cases to an appropriafe adult.
Another concern that is expressed in the literature is that peer counsellors are being overseen by "non-professionals" (Lewis & Lewis, 1996). Some researchers claim that non-
professional counsellors may have limited knowledge of ethical and professional issues such as privacy, confidentiality, dual relationships, establishing appropriate boundaries, and risk assessment. They suggest that peer helping programmes should not be supervised by anyone other than a masters' level counsellor or other similarly trained mental health professionals.
This fmal comment seems impractical and elitist in the South African context where the school counsellor or guidance teacher may be a luxury (Dorrian, 1998) with school psychologists an even less practically feasible option.
Latham (1997) agrees with Robinson et al., (1991) in their recommendation that peer counselling programmes must be provided with a large enough budget for training and continuity, and that peer counsellors receive ongoing support and training. To Latham (1997): "This type of support is critical. Even the most mature and responsible high school peer counsellor is still a teenager, facing the same formidable challenges as his or her peers"
(p.78).
Further recommendations for peer help programmes in the literature include:
• For smoother running and ease of initiation, the development of peer help programmes should be attempted by school personnel rather than outside service agencies
• A number of school counsellors and teachers should be involved in the programme, particularly as it expands
• The peer counsellors should receive support to enable them to cope in their own lives
• Related to this, supervision and ongoing training should be a structured activity for the peer counsellors. These times can also be spent deciding on new activities or
interventions that can be implemented to facilitate the development of the programme, as well as its visibility in the school
(in Robinson et al., 1991)
In addition to the above recommendations, de Rosenroll (1989) emphasises the need for research into peer counselling at every level of its development and practical implementation.
A number of writers in the field have also suggested that research into peer counselling focus on the following areas: The impact of peer counsellors on the people they meet with (Carr, 1989 in Carr, Yanishewski & de Rosenroll, 1989); the effect of peer counselling on the school organisational system (Carr, 1989 in ibid.); and long-term research on the effects of being a peer counsellor on the peer counsellors themselves (Varenhorst, 1989; Emey, 1989 in ibid.). Varenhorst expresses the opinion that peer helpers will develop long-lasting relational skills: "..1am a great believer that those who are trained (as peer counsellors) will make better parents, will make better marriages, even will be more successful on their jobs"(p. 15).
Cowie and Wallace (2000) recommend evaluative research into what the characteristics of the effective peer supporter are. Research into programme evaluation is suggested by Tindall (1989 in Carr et aI., 1989) to gauge if the peer counselling programme is accomplishing its goals.
Figure 2.2 attempts to diagrammatically depict those aspects of peer support programmes discussed in the preceding section (section 2.4), that inform the implementation, practical running and efficacy of such programmes at the secondary school level.
Recognises and normalises peer support PEER SUPPORT
Evaluation:
Benefits, limitations, areas for development
!
Selection of peersupporters
School Context:
Role of peer counsellingin school context
1
Training:
Basic Counselling skills
"Special" issues
Peer support roles:
-Emotional support and/or
-Advice/Education
/
Importance ofsupenbion and supportinpeer counselling process
Figure 2.2 The Process of Peer Support