3.2. Theoretical and conceptual framework
3.2.2. The Information Search Process (ISP) Model
Kuhlthau’s Information Search Process (ISP) was influenced by George Kelly’s (1955) Personal Construct Theory and the 1966 work of Jerome Bruner and the work in 1978 of Lev Vygotsky (Kuhlthau, 1993: 14-32).The model is located within the cognitive-constructivist paradigm and addresses complex tasks that require information seeking and interpretation over an extended period of time. It presents information seeking as a process of construction with uncertainty decreasing as understanding increases. The application of the stages of the ISP model is holistic and encompasses the three realms of activity, that is, the physical - actions taken - the affective - feelings experienced - and the cognitive - thoughts about processes and content (Byström, & Jarvelin, 1995: 192). The model involves six stages:
Initiation – an awareness of lack of knowledge.
Selection – identification of a topic to begin the search process.
Exploration – when inconsistent or incompatible information is encountered.
Formulation – forming a focused perspective to the problem.
Collection – gathering information on the identified problem.
Presentation/assessment – when the search is completed with a new understanding of the problem, enabling the user to explain his/her learning to others.
An analysis of the model shows that the different stages of the ISP model reflect a pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting at each point of the process (Kuhlthau, 2004: 185). The names of the stages represent the primary tasks to be accomplished at each stage which provide an opportunity to test how theoretical knowledge can be transferred to practical situations through the process.
Studies using the model reveal that the most challenging stages of the model are the exploration and formulation stages which encompass a constructive process of developing a focused
perspective in order to accomplish the set goal (Isbell & Kammerlocher, 1998: 35). Each of the stages also indicates a progressive development towards attaining a “sense of ownership” in the area of expertise which constitutes an important component of information literacy and lifelong learning (Kuhlthau, 1989: Summary of the five studies).
Figure 3: Model of the Information Search Process (Kuhlthau, 2004: 82)
The application of the model to the context of this study will be useful in addressing the research questions in the following ways:
A fundamental feature of the Initiation stage is that of uncertainty. The concept of “uncertainty”
is important to the theory of cognitive constructivism and in the literature on information seeking behaviour. It refers both to the cognitive and affective states of the user in specific stages of problem solving and to task complexity which relates to the degree and structure of knowledge available for decision-making (Talja, Tuominen & Savolainen, 2005: 83, 85). In the ISP model, it forms a critical link between information and decision-making. According to Kuhlthau (2004:
25, 91, 270), the uncertainty principle is a cognitive state that commonly causes affective symptoms of anxiety and lack of confidence especially at the initiation stage. Feelings of uncertainty are also experienced at the Selection stage which often leads to optimism. The challenge at this stage is to identify the right approach to be used in investigating the selected topic. It requires consulting with mediators and preliminary research at the library (Kuhlthau, 1991: 366).
These first two stages of the model, (Initiation and Selection) as applied to the context of the research questions of this study helped to reveal the level of information literacy skills and competencies of the aspirant barristers in the early stage of their career by exploring the problem of uncertainty in the context of information seeking. It was anticipated that findings from the analysis of data obtained from questionnaires administered to the aspirant barristers, as related to these stages of research, would elicit the responses needed to help address research question two of the study. Secondly, it was also possible from the analysis of data to apply information literacy as a conceptual framework to ascertain the adequacy of skills training received during undergraduate legal education which helped to determine the level of preparedness and competency of the aspirant barristers for legal practice.
At the Exploration stage, the user attempts to have a personal understanding of the topic by relating new information to previous experience (Kuhlthau, 1991: 366). At this stage, the
perception of the complexity of a task increases the level of uncertainty especially in a workplace context. It is assumed that a greater level of construction is experienced at this stage especially when the structure of the problem at hand is more complex (Vakkari, 1999: 826). Thus the model seeks to understand the workers’ perception regarding issues of uncertainty and task complexity and the construction of new knowledge at this stage. The process of construction in itself
involves an engagement and interaction with information sources and the affective experience plays an important role in directing cognition and action throughout this process. The effort to construct meaning is often followed by the Formulation or problem-solving stage (Kuhlthau, 2004: 25). This stage creates the opportunity for the user to determine the information
requirements of the task at hand and also helps in diminishing feelings of uncertainty. The challenge for the user is to develop a focused perspective through a process of construction resulting in increased confidence and a sense of clarity of the task at hand (Kuhlthau, 1991: 368).
Exploration and formulation are the cognitive learning stages in the ISP model and enhance the user’s ability in the constructive process. It was anticipated that an examination of the cognitive aspects of the model would be useful for identifying gaps and skills transfer specifically in the area of task complexities associated with research in legal practice. According to Nichols (2005:
441-442), much of legal professionalism occurs in the cognitive and affective domain. This includes the acquisition of intellectual skills, the development of analytical and evaluative skills, and the internalisation of learning objectives. Affective learning in the legal profession that is similar to the stages of the ISP model is realised when the user moves from uncertainty to confidence developing a higher level of competence, interests, attitudes and values in the workplace (Kuhlthau, 2004: 178). Consequently, in explaining the exploration and formulation stages of the model in this study, the analysis also focused on data obtained through a
questionnaire administered to the aspirant barristers during the placement period. Findings helped to provide data for research question two.
The Collection stage involves a process of interaction between the user and the sources of information systems. Actions include selecting relevant information for the research project. The affective experience is that of confidence and increased interest in the project. The Presentation stage represents the point of closure in the search process where further information is no longer encountered. The user then organises strategies for presenting acquired information (Kuhlthau, 2004: 49). These last two stages require the ability of the user to analyse collected information, incorporate the information for a better understanding and present what has been learned to others.
Since its conceptualisation, the ISP model has been employed as a diagnostic tool for understanding the information search experiences of people in diverse contexts including education, work and everyday information seeking (Kuhlthau, Heinstrom & Todd, 2008:
Generating the ISP model). Initial studies with the model were conducted among secondary school students; however, far reaching impact with respect to the use of the model and its applicability to various contexts has also been achieved, particularly in library and information services and other socially determined tasks in the work place (Kuhlthau, 1999a: 14; Hyldegård, 2006: 276). Between 1983 and 1985, Kuhlthau (1997: 268-269) conducted a longitudinal study which sought to establish a security analyst’s level of progression from novice to expert.
Similarly in 2001, Kuhlthau and Tama (2001) undertook an exploratory study among early career experienced lawyers in an attempt to gain a better understanding of changes in their knowledge states within a variety of tasks in which they were involved and how they used information to accomplish these tasks. They determined from the findings that even though the sequence of the tasks accomplished may appear recursive rather than linear, it reflected a progression towards completing a pattern that is comparable to the ISP model. Although these studies may not be generalised, they contribute to an understanding of the concept of the ISP model within a workplace setting and provide insight into the difference between information seeking and use in routine and complex tasks. Also with regard to research, the model can be productively applied to both qualitative and quantitative methods especially at the initiation stage of the model to formulate testable hypotheses in qualitative research which can then be measured by quantitative methods (Kuhlthau & Tama, 2001: 27-30).
Kuhlthau’s work has had a major influence on IL research especially with respect to issues of pedagogy and curriculum development: this is evident in the various ways in which it has been employed as a useful conceptual framework for developing programmes of user-centred
information services and systems in higher education institutions (Kuhlthau, 1999a: 12; Sundin, 2008: 28). However, an analysis of findings from some of Kuhlthau’s studies has highlighted some inconsistencies regarding the affective dimension assigned to the early stages of the model.
According to Melton (2003: Model comparison: Kuhlthau and Dervin), feelings of anxiety in the information seeking process cited by Kuhlthau (1991: 366) seem imposed since the participants were already trained in the information seeking process and are thus expected to have developed
a level of tolerance to the stages of the process. Similarly, Melton (2003: Model comparison:
Kuhlthau and Dervin), argues that if the model is to be taken literally, the assignment of emotions to various stages is somewhat arbitrary and tends to ignore users’ individuality of feelings, and if applied generally, loses meaning because it may be difficult to determine the users’ exact feelings at any given point in the process. A further weakness in the model is noted with respect to the structure of the process itself. According to Melton (2003: Model comparison: Kuhlthau and Dervin), the steps seem to indicate that they can either be achieved simultaneously or at different times and placing an individual in any of the stages, besides the initiation or presentation stage, does not sufficiently describe the user’s current state. Also, the possibility that any of the stages may be reverted to or entirely skipped throughout the process is not expressed clearly in the model.
However, Wilson’s (1999: 266) explanation of the stages of Kuhlthau’s model clarifies some of these criticisms when he proposes that the stages in the ISP model can be seen not as steps in a single information activity but rather reiterated steps that may occur in exploratory loops between each link in the problem resolution chain. He pointed out also that the collection stage, for example, actually takes place within other stages hence it may not be classified as a single stage when it occurs. The stages in the model therefore suggest that some of these terms can be used to identify the stages through which an individual moves to resolve uncertainty. Sundin (2008: 28) also notes that the creation of meaning through the stages of the ISP model
emphasises the difference between uncertainty and control as being the fundamental principle which underlies information seeking and consequently the importance of user education in LIS.
In a review of the relevance of the model to research, Makri (2008: 32) notes that the empirical validity of the ISP model has been tested by its applicability to different information
environments which makes it generalisable to both the educational and the workplace contexts.