3.2. Theoretical and conceptual framework
3.2.3. Theory of Information Activity in Work
a level of tolerance to the stages of the process. Similarly, Melton (2003: Model comparison:
Kuhlthau and Dervin), argues that if the model is to be taken literally, the assignment of emotions to various stages is somewhat arbitrary and tends to ignore users’ individuality of feelings, and if applied generally, loses meaning because it may be difficult to determine the users’ exact feelings at any given point in the process. A further weakness in the model is noted with respect to the structure of the process itself. According to Melton (2003: Model comparison: Kuhlthau and Dervin), the steps seem to indicate that they can either be achieved simultaneously or at different times and placing an individual in any of the stages, besides the initiation or presentation stage, does not sufficiently describe the user’s current state. Also, the possibility that any of the stages may be reverted to or entirely skipped throughout the process is not expressed clearly in the model.
However, Wilson’s (1999: 266) explanation of the stages of Kuhlthau’s model clarifies some of these criticisms when he proposes that the stages in the ISP model can be seen not as steps in a single information activity but rather reiterated steps that may occur in exploratory loops between each link in the problem resolution chain. He pointed out also that the collection stage, for example, actually takes place within other stages hence it may not be classified as a single stage when it occurs. The stages in the model therefore suggest that some of these terms can be used to identify the stages through which an individual moves to resolve uncertainty. Sundin (2008: 28) also notes that the creation of meaning through the stages of the ISP model
emphasises the difference between uncertainty and control as being the fundamental principle which underlies information seeking and consequently the importance of user education in LIS.
In a review of the relevance of the model to research, Makri (2008: 32) notes that the empirical validity of the ISP model has been tested by its applicability to different information
environments which makes it generalisable to both the educational and the workplace contexts.
of task complexity as it affects the information seeking activities of the municipal workers. It explored how the perceived task complexity of this group of workers modified their need for different types of information and choice of information sources in work settings (Byström, 2007: Theoretical and empirical foci on task within the individual user perspectives). According to Byström (2002: 582), perceived task complexity is determined on the basis of the performer’s prior knowledge, about a particular task. A priori determinability refers to prior knowledge or experience which is a valuable quality in task performance as it helps determine the perceived task problem.
The basic assumption of the theory is that the information activities of professionals are affected by individual as well as contextual characteristics. Hence the conceptual framework adopted in Byström’s study considered the basic characteristics for task based information seeking and use in a professional setting (Byström, 1999: 21). In operationalising the concept of task complexity, the study employed a task categorisation process developed by Tietosysteemin in 1974. This process divides all information-intensive tasks into five task categories on the basis of a priori determinability. The task categorisation covers information intensive tasks from the simplest to the most complex tasks. It is general in nature and applicable in various contexts and can be used regardless of which perspective is used to determine the nature of the complexity of the task (Byström, 2002: 584). The data were organised into three main classifications:
1. Task categorisations: Classes of task categories are differentiated from each other based on the degree of a priori determinability of a task, that is, the more familiar a task performer is with the task requirement the less complex the task is perceived. This category is further sub-divided into three complexity categories.
Automatic information processing tasks, that is, simple tasks that require little or no case-based consideration during task performance.
Normal information processing tasks include some case-based consideration although they may be predictable.
Decision tasks – perceived tasks which include several case-based decisions during task performance.
2. Information types in relation to tasks: Task information in this case refers to the specific task at hand presented in the form of facts. For example domain information which
comprises more general statements and is applicable to several tasks of the same kind, may be factual or interpretative.
3. Information sources.
The work tasks are divided into various subtasks as associated with naturally occurring
information seeking and retrieval. The relationship between the types, channels and sources of information are then examined on the basis of their level of complexity to the task (Byström, 2005: 175-176).
Byström’s theory of Information Activity in Work settings provides an understanding of work tasks of varying complexity especially in information intensive environments and is applicable to real-life work contexts where information activities occur. Unlike previous studies in task
complexity and information seeking and use which were limited to a focus on the relationship between task complexity and information use, Byström’s study using the theory was able to establish a relationship between the complex nature of a task and how it affects information seeking and use with respect to the type of information sought and the sources of information used in handling a particular task (Byström & Jarvelin, 1995: 193; Byström, 1999: 18-21). The theory is useful in analysing user information activities in work situations and is helpful for developing and designing information management systems in work organisations. It has been used in relation to studies in task complexity, uncertainty and analysability and as a conceptual framework in addressing gaps in studies of information seeking and retrieval. Similar studies have been undertaken by Vakkari (1999), Wilson (1999) and Kuhlthau and Tama (2001) which have further expanded its use and application (Byström, 2005: 174). From the findings of the study, Byström was able to develop a model which emphasises aspects of work tasks in relation to information seeking and use. The design of the model was influenced by the works of
Feinman and others in 1976 and Kuhlthau’s (1993) ISP model (Byström, 1999: 18).
In the context of this study, the application of the theory was used to investigate issues of varying complexities in work tasks experienced by the aspirant barristers in the use of legal information resources. It was also used for examining the connection between task complexity and the structure of legal information as it affects the information seeking behaviour of the aspirant barristers (Byström & Jarvelin, 1995: 193).