CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.3 Theoretical approach to the study
The theoretical framework of the research is the eco-systemic and ecological approach. The theoretical framework is summarised in this chapter to facilitate conceptualisation of the research process. This is essential since the literature review presented over the next three chapters utilises these broad approaches. Details of the research methodology and sampling procedures are presented in Chapter Two.
According to Kasiram (1993), any research endeavour aims to explore and acquire knowledge in respect of a particular area of concern. This study aims at acquiring more information on the problems, frustrations and needs of social workers working in South Africa and the UK. Existing policy and implications in the social work profession will be explored.
According to Okun (1997: 138) the major premises of the ecological system perspective are that (1) an individual is a system in himself or herself, comprising interacting components or subsystems such as cognitive, affective, and physiological arenas; (2) an individual is a component of past and current family systems, which, in turn, are components within larger social systems such as the school, work place, and community; and (3) an individual's problems are likely to derive from poor personal or environmental fit rather than from internal pathology.
The ecological perspective is, therefore, multicontextual. An individual's problems have meaning in the larger social system. All behaviour is relational and communicative, and there is a mutually reciprocal influence between one's problems, one's life circumstances, and the interactional patterns of family, school, workplace, and community. It is therefore important to acknowledge that environmental variables do play an
important part in the creation and maintenance of the social worker's problems, needs and frustrations.
Thus, according to Okun (1997: 139), the identification and clarification of an individual's problems require consideration of both individual and system as contributing factors. An individual's problems affect his or her family, just as the family affects the individual. This is the notion of circular causality (events are related through a series of interacting loops or repeating cycles and codetermine each other). The ecological perspective emphasises that social/political/economic/cultural variables impact on individual development.
Fiedeldey (1995) contributes to the ecological perspective by maintaining that people are assumed to live in different, yet related, experiential worlds. The relatedness of these worlds may be seen as residing in the correspondence of the structural organisation existing between one individual and different environments. The concept of person-environment fit is an important aspect in environmental psychology. It refers to the possibility that there are certain types of environment that are somehow more suited to the human experience, more appropriate for human activities, and better suited to certain kinds of endeavour than to others (Fiedeldey, 1995).
Ford & Lerner (1992) inform that an ecological approach to the concept of the person-environment fit explicitly recognises the ecology of ideas within which humans function, and towards which they continually contribute. A recursive process of transaction exists between people, the environments in which they live their daily lives, and the ideas that they have about those environments. Human ideas about the environment are a small part of a much larger body of continually evolving ideas. Our present understanding of the essential interrelatedness and
interdependence of people and the environment is shaped by ecology of ideas (Ford & Lerner, 1992).
In practice, social workers address social concerns that threaten the structure of society and redress social conditions that adversely affect the well-being of people and society. Social work thus encompasses the professional activities of helping individuals, families, groups, organisations and communities to enhance or restore their capacity for optimal functioning, and of creating societal conditions favourable to this goal. According to Mazibuko (1996: 153), the definitions of social work generated during the 1980s emphasise the ecosystems approach.
Even with the amendment of its target group for service, South African social work is still criticised for having an inclination towards making people the object for change. In some instances, this is of course appropriate, yet many human problems have their antecedents beyond individual and families, rather in wider social, economic and political circumstances. Similarly, the social work profession is now under siege, with social workers experiencing their own problems, needs and frustrations in their professional and personal lives. This research therefore focuses on and acquires more information on the problems, frustrations and needs of social workers working in South Africa and the UK using an eco-systemic perspective.
According to the ecosystems approach as advocated by Germain &
Gitterman (1980), people's needs and problems are located at the interface between person and environment, which are defined as maladaptive transactions within the life space. Gitterman & Germain (1984) assert that people's needs, problems or predicaments fall into three interrelated areas: (1) life transitions involving developmental stages, status role changes, and crisis events; (2) the unresponsiveness of the social and physical environment, which may be the social worker's
main dilemma; and (3) communication and relationship difficulties in families and other primary groups.
Germain & Gitterman (1980) describe transactions as continuous reciprocal exchanges in the unitary system of a person's environment by which each shapes, changes or otherwise influences the other over time.
They are circular feedback processes taking place in the person:
environment interface, giving rise to reciprocal contemporaneous causality. This continuous exchange in the unitary system occurs within various systemic levels; namely, micro, mezzo, and/or macro systemic levels (Germain & Gitterman, 1980).
In this study, the exodus of social workers will be recognised as having a multi-causal basis, that is, a variety of reasons cause social workers to relocate, and one must appreciate the interconnection of the different causes. These causes can be contained in two broad categories: personal and professional, within the Micro, Mezzo and Macro systemic levels.
Pennekamp and Freeman, cited in Kasiram (1993), identified the key elements of the ecological paradigm in relation to the subject with which it is involved as follows:
In this study the frustration and changes experienced by the social workers occur at different systemic levels and are seen as interconnected, resulting in social workers' relocating.
Micro Svstems Level
According to Fiedeldey (1995) the micro systems level refers to the smallest ecosystem within which the person interacts or performs most of his/her work, as well as those elements of the larger environment such as family within the person's life space.
Changes/frustrations occur within the family and the agency. This contributes to the problems/needs experienced by social workers within their own family systems and also while working with clients. High caseloads at agencies, frustration with the lack of resources, and the continuous impact of the diverse and frightening/complex problems encountered in the field all contribute to the problems experienced by the social worker.
Ross (1993) emphasises that there is an interaction, interdependence and spill over of frustrations/ problems between work and family life.
Mezzo Systems Level
The mezzo systems level includes those elements of the larger environment such as the neighbourhood and community.
Conflict/frustrations occur within the neighbourhood. Social workers experience problems/frustrations working in insecure/dangerous/resistant or apathetic neighbourhoods. Frustration/conflict results from inadequate resources/recreational facilities within the neighbourhood in which the social worker lives/or works. This in turn affects the life of the client and social worker. Owing to these conflicts/frustrations, the service delivery of
the social worker is affected. The role of trade unions and professional associations also impact on service delivery because of the frustrations experienced from interaction with trade unions. Lack of staff incentives and lack of employer assistance programmes can also be viewed as contributing to problems, frustrations and needs that lead to social workers'relocating.
Macro Svstems Level
According to Carroll & White (1993), the macro system represents the broader socio-cultural elements within the individual's life space and beyond the boundaries of the mezzo system.
The social worker may experience conflict/frustration, which can be found in the present government, political system and changes within the country. The present judicial and security systems can be identified as contributing to frustrations, problems and needs encountered by social workers in their personal and professional lives. Policies and service conditions can also contribute to professional problems, frustrations and needs experienced by social workers.
According to McKendrick (1990:241), South Africa is an industrialising, urbanising and developing society. Among the economic, political and social stressors which seem particularly relevant to the South African context are recessions, inflation, poverty, unemployment, education policies, racial discrimination, over-population, housing shortages, violence, crime and unrest. The social worker therefore may experience conflict or frustration owing to such stressors.
According to Kasiram (1993:66), the eco-systemic approach has been advocated as useful in 'unifying' various theories and offering a multi- dimensional view of causality. The ecological perspective, however, crosses traditional 'methodical boundaries' and identifies methods and skills to encourage its use. In this study, the eco-systemic approach is used to help 'unify' perspectives or causality, and the eco-systemic perspective offers specific guidelines regarding levels where multi- causality must be sought.