4.9. Data gathering
4.9.3. Visual data
142 Advantageously, documents are generally easy and inexpensive to access with vast amount of information available as a method of getting data (Denscombe, 2007). They provide a permanent source of data in a form that is open to scrutiny by others (Denscombe, 2007). However, because they are a source generated for other purposes and not for the aims of the research and thus ‗can owe more to the interpretations of those who produce them than to an objective picture of reality‘ (Denscombe, 2007), evaluation of authority and procedures in respect of their origin is crucial. This is not always easy. Nonetheless, key to this and recognised in this study is building of trust through ensuring ethical soundness of the study and affirming that the sources are used sensitively and with respect (Gibson & Brown, 2009). Thus in this study both personal and institutional intentions for document production, ownership and storage are fully established and ensured.
143 However, disadvantageously, the availability of existing information restricts the kind of questions that can be asked (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007) and nonreactive variables are often seen as weak in validity since they do not measure the construct of interest. `Furthermore, although generally a low-cost research technique, the researcher lacks control over and knowledge of, the data collection process raising potential error (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007). A further disadvantage is that camera angles directly affect what can and cannot be seen undermining fallibility of the data (Lankshear & Knobel, 2004). Thus vigilance and caution are exercised and considered throughout this process.
Imperatively therefore, the manner in which photo data are analysed and interpreted involves a reflective process of reviewing the research purpose (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007, p.153). Photo data analysis in this study takes the form of content analysis. First used in 1910 by Max Weber of the German Sociological Society, qualitative/interpretive content analysis is used for its broader social cultural meaning (Neuman, 2011). Generally, a nonreactive process, content analysis is a method that can be used with any ‗text‘, writing, sounds, pictures, as a way of quantifying its context. Words, meanings, messages or symbols are communicated without any awareness of the researcher (Neuman, 2011). Photo data probed into help to discover content in a manner different from ordinary ways (Neuman, 2011) yet follow a logical and relatively straightforward process (Denscombe, 2007). Importantly, analysis is based on what is directly visible to the researcher. Mitchell (2011, p. 11) advises that ‗situating one‘s self in the research texts – taking it personally – is critical to engaging in the interpretive process‘ when analysing photo data.
Significantly, photo data do not speak for themselves (Lankshear & Knobel, 2004). They are mediated by theory during analysis and interpretation (Lankshear & Knobel, 2004). Theory informs when an image contains information of value. It furnishes criteria by which worthwhile data and statements can be separated from those that contain nothing of value and that do not add to knowledge (Lankshear & Knobel, 2004). In this case the experiences of teachers as depicted within photo data are framed around the Dunn and Dunn (1978) LSI and its 21 elements and 5 strands. This study accordingly makes use of written up theoretical memos of interpretations and thoughts on photo data.
Thus, practically, in analysing photo data, content of images used in this study is broken down into smaller units and relevant categories developed for analysis (Denscombe, 2007). A clear idea of the kinds of categories, issues and ideas that the study is concerned with and how these appear in the text are presented.
Coding the unit in line with these categories, relevant words and sentences follow. Like documents, the value
144 of the factual information contained and how they represent the symbolism and hidden meanings communicated through them are probed. Placing oneself personally within the research texts is critical to engaging in the interpretive process during photo data analysis (Mitchell, 2011, p. 11; Denzin, 2003).
Representatively, photos are a study of a sample rather than individual instances (Johnson & Christensen, 2012). It is limited to content that represents particular variables under study that are clearly and consistently defined and classified. In this case study a sample of relevant photos are selected that depict classroom teaching and learning through the learner-centred model of the Dunn and Dunn (1978) learning styles approach to teaching. It speaks to teachers‘ experiences of what, how and why the Dunn and Dunn (1978) learning styles approach to teaching have contributed to their work, complexities and contradictions of the approach as understood, described and experienced by these participants.
Thus, in seeking to better understand teachers‘ experience of the Dunn and Dunn (1978) learning styles approach used to implement the intermediate phase curriculum, an appropriate sample of images are chosen through explicit criteria. De Lange, Mitchell and Stuart, eds. (2007, p. 77) offer the following questions that provide explicit criteria to guide choice of photo data sample in this study:
Why is the photo to be included as pertinent to the research question?
How does it help set the scene, explain the historical context, highlight the social context, add to the portrayal of the culture?
How does it help to consolidate the different threads of the accounts or prove a point?
How does it contribute to the main purpose of the case?
How can it be misinterpreted?
How does it add to the reader gaining a deeper understanding?
How does it support the text, evoke emotion?
Is it offensive?
Who or what does it give voice to, clarify or verify?
Crucially, content analysis does not determine truthfulness of an assertion, evaluation or interpretation of significance of the content but reveals and supplements it (Neuman, 2011). Content analysis is able to expose messages that may generally be difficult to see with casual observation (Neuman, 2011). Often the creator of the text may be unaware of all its themes, biases, or characteristics. Trustworthiness is thus ensured through
145 findings that can be trusted (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007). In this study consistent awareness and maintenance of the principles of credibility - checking for truth, transferability, and dependability, consistency of findings, confirmability, neutrality and freedom of bias are mindfully borne (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007).
Additionally, the following questions submitted by Lankshear and Knobel (2004) help to judge
‗representativeness‘, authenticity and trustworthiness of the images.
Who took them?
Under what circumstances or conditions?
Were subjects coerced into posing for the photograph?
Were they aware they were being photographed?
Has permission been obtained from people depicted in the visual record for their image to be used for research if any?
The reason the visual was created for reporting purposes, historical/archival purposes, personal interests?
What kind of relationship existed between the photographer and what or who was photographed?
Ethically, visual data is often subjected to more rigorous scrutiny than most other data because of its accessibility (Mitchell, 2011, p.11). However, found images, as significantly accessed in this case study and produced by people for reasons not directly connected with the researcher‘s investigation, are less technically complicated since they already exist (Denscombe, 2007). Ethically they are less concerning since getting them does not involve informed consent in cases where the image includes people (Denscombe, 2007). This study makes use of found and new images as they are and become part of the archival and historical record of the school‘s activities, a regular feature of this site. However, for authenticity, care is taken that the images have not been tampered with, changed or edited from the original (Denscombe, 2007). Though ethical concerns are not foremost in nonreactive research as in this case because people studied are not directly involved, the primary ethical concern is privacy and confidentiality in using information that someone else has gathered (Neuman, 2011). Accordingly, for this study, copyright and ownership issues are established, permission in writing granted, voluntary participation offered, anonymity and confidentiality assured, blurring off of faces and
146 no direct inference to participants guaranteed (de Lange, Mitchell & Stuart, 2007; Lankshear & Knobel, 2004 ).