RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS
4.5 Man Made History – The Role of Official History in History Education
4.5.1 Historical Significance
4.5.1.2 World History and Historical Significance
4.5.1.2 World History and Historical Significance
Ryan disliked having to study the Vikings and the Aztecs in primary school as he “had a special interest for the weapons” of the Second World War as his grandfather had fought in the war, Ryan wanted to learn about the Second World War. However, it seemed that he did not get this opportunity at his primary school in Zimbabwe. Sipho too could recall learning about the Vikings in primary school. He also remembered a focus on the “Voyages of Discovery” with a specific reference to Vasco da Gama and his crew coming to South Africa.
A highlight of Michael’s study of history in primary school was learning the history of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Norse Mythology and Greek Mythology. He came to be passionate about Ancient civilisations and his primary school history had obviously left an indelible impression on him. In Brad’s narrative he suggested that he did not do well in history because of the choice of the French Revolution in his grade 8 year at his independent boys’ school in Zimbabwe. This topic, coupled with what he remembered as poor history teaching, resulted in him failing the entire year: “I did 2 years of grade 8 and in my first year at St Johns Senior I did history not by choice and my history teacher was not very good, we learnt about the French revolution, I failed that year.”
A number of the boys remembered learning about Jack the Ripper in their first year of secondary schooling at Balcomb Academy. This topic clearly made an impression on them possibly because it appealed to a sense of mystery, intrigue, danger and sensationalism. Ian described this topic as “exciting” and Jaryd associated the topic as the start of “the process of investigation.” This topic seemed to have been the turning point for many of the boys as they turned from seeing history as being disengaging and irrelevant in primary school to engaging and relevant in the latter phase of secondary school. It also marked the beginning of what could be termed their historical literacy.
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This shift is evident in Brad’s experiences. Despite not enjoying history in grade 8 at his previous school, by the time that Brad was in his final year of secondary school he suggested that he may even continue to study history at tertiary level “as I now know what communism and capitalism is.” For Brad significance was of paramount importance in the study of history. It can be surmised therefore that he did not see the study of the French Revolution as relevant. Relevance was significant for Brad.
Furthermore an ability to apply an understanding of concepts learnt in the study of history to everyday life ensures greater significance as it reinforces the history boy’s masculinity by empowering him to dominate other boys intellectually thereby finding his place within the masculine hegemony.
Ryan enjoyed the theme of “Popular Protest” which appeared in his grade 12 year. This theme appealed to his contempt of authority and he admired those who stood up to challenge those in power in the USA: “History taught me to be more liberal minded and to always question authority.” This theme was also a favourite of Sipho’s. He could identify with the black historical characters wanting an end to discrimination. People held a particular fascination for Sipho and he enjoyed learning about how people in history dealt with adversity: “What I enjoy about history is learning how different people reacted to different situations and what the outcome of every situation was.” However, he also enjoyed the theme entitled the “Collapse of Communism” “as I think it’s quite an amazing story.” This was echoed in the focus group interview when he was asked to justify his association of history with communism: “I really enjoyed the section on Communism. I think that was my favourite, and every time I think of history that just comes to mind.” Because “The Cold War” and the follow-on theme of “The Collapse of Communism” dominate half of the grade 12 curriculum it is not surprising that the boys saw significance in these two themes.
When asked to reflect on the history that they had learnt in the past year (in other words, in grade 12) the following responses were offered:
Michael: the fabric of our existence.
109 Sipho: Communism.
Michael: Understanding.
Sipho: How a trickle became a flood.
Jaryd: Power. I think power, looking back on history comes in different forms, whether its ownership of land, or influencing people politically, even though to having the kind of luxury of knowledge, knowing what’s going around in the world around you, that all comes down to power, and kind of empowerment of some kind, and always there’s somebody trying to take that away from someone else in order to dominate them.
The absence of direct confrontation or violence sticks out in most boys’ memories when they described the history learnt in their last year of secondary school. In particular they referred to the clash in ideologies (Cold War) and the role of protest in bringing about a change in attitude and behaviour. It seems that when recalling what was studied at primary school the history learnt there seems to be about war and violence without resolution or context but not so in secondary school. There is violence but there is more:
there is context to this violence; resolution; ideologies; alternate means to finding solutions.
Perhaps it is with maturity or perhaps it is the result of the official history learnt in the secondary school curriculum, particularly in grade 12, that the boys were able to identify the more subtle lessons of history to do with power and influence – “the fabric of our existence.” Conflict, when it is detailed, is an intellectual one: a clash of ideologies, beliefs and the need to dominate. The boys came to understand the subtle power plays in history. Change, when it does occur, is not the result of one violent act, but a slow process over time: “How a trickle became a flood.” At the same time the boys have come to realize the restorative process following the conflict. The focus in secondary school history is not the conflict alone but the results of the conflict and resolutions to years of conflict.
110 Brad: Conflict is always the prime root to it.
Ian: And how they fix it and that.
Jeffrey: All about resolving conflict and stuff, but it’s not, mainly about conflict and decisions.
The history learnt in primary school on the other hand, seems to be less subtle, involving all-out war and the use of physical violence in order to achieve dominance.
The focus is on the conflict itself. At the same time the focus in primary school history is on men’s actions rather than ideas. The boys picked up on this shift in emphasis within the curricula from primary to secondary school. According to Ryan, “I think it changes in time, like in different periods of history. I think like, in sort of, ancient history it’s more of a physical sense than anything else, and slowly its moved like as we progressed and it’s become, and technology has developed, it’s become more of an intellectual thing as well, I think, than just physical.” By the time that the boys are in grade 12 they learnt to differentiate between different forms of conflict, realising that for change to occur conflict is unavoidable. However, this conflict does not always take physical form.
When pressed to identify a conflict that they had studied in the last year, the Cold War and the associated collapse of Communism were the unanimous responses. For most of the boys the greatest lessons learnt in history involved mistakes committed and the need to avoid them. For these boys in Grade 12 wars are mistakes that should be avoided hence the true significance of history which according to Jeffrey is “to learn from mistakes.” By coming to an understanding of how these conflicts occurred and how they can be avoided is the greatest lesson of history. The boys were able to take the lesson learnt in the historical context and apply it to their own lives. Furthermore they were able to understand how each of the themes studied is intertwined with the other whereas it seems that history at primary school is unconnected, an isolated conflict - a war for a war’s sake.
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One can therefore conclude that these boys hold those themes that have personal relevance to be significant. They in turn find it easier to do well in history when the history they are studying is significant to them. Interesting history is significant history as it is used by these boys to hold up a mirror against which they formulate their masculinity. Looking back over a significant part of 12 years of formal education in official history much of the history that characterized their primary schooling and the early part of their secondary schooling was that of conflict and violence. But as they got older the history seemed to change from conflict to resolution; from violence to negotiation. History no longer seemed to just be about wars and the physical clash between men. It then became ideological clashes and attempts to resolve disputes through non-conflict means. This had personal significance for the boys as they came to identify the hegemony of what it means to be a man (aggression, conflict and physical dominance) learnt through the unofficial curriculum versus an alternate form of masculinity involving courage still but courage of conviction and the need for co- operation not conflict and this mirrored what played out in their official school history curriculum. In so doing these boys started to see more of themselves or saw themselves differently in the history that they were studying at school. The history that they had learnt in the final years of secondary school served to give voice to and legitimized other forms of masculinity rather than just the hegemonic. But one should also remember that at the same time that these boys are studying history they are also constructing their own masculine gender identities; coming to an understanding of themselves as they come to an understanding of history. In addition the study of history at secondary school aims not for learners to acquire historical knowledge alone but instead for learners to demonstrate historical literacy. So perhaps it is the acquisition of historical literacy that has brought a deeper understanding of historical significance and in so doing the history that they studied at secondary school took on personal significance: a mirror to hold up against these history boys’ own masculine gender formation. Alternatively the boys had already acquired lessons on what it means to be a man gained through unofficial sources and these lessons superimpose those learnt in the history classroom.
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