Introduction
Introduction
To support this, Coleman and Hendry (1991) include low self-esteem among the many factors responsible for adolescent involvement in risk-taking behavior. On the other hand, others associate high self-esteem with a general sense of well-being and less engagement in risk behaviors (Kavas, 2009; Wild et al., 2004).
Research outline
Several studies indicate a necessary link between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior (Impett et al., 2008; Kavas, 2009). The most common form of risky behavior reported in the current study was alcohol (72%), followed by sexual risky behavior (51%), then cigarette smoking (38%) and dagga smoking (31%).
Literature Review
Adolescent stage
- Definition
- Brief Historical background
- Nature and Characteristics of the Adolescent Stage
- Cognitive changes
- Adjustment challenges
- Transition to University
Drug abuse is reported to be out of control in schools nationwide (Gouws et al., 2010). His theory explains that all higher cognitive processes arise in social interaction (Gouws et al., 2010).
Adolescent’s self-esteem
- What shapes self-esteem?
- Healthy Self-esteem
- Low Self-esteem
Self-esteem has a decisive influence on the development and the way self-esteem is formed. According to Coleman and Henry (1991), low self-esteem is associated with depression, anxiety and poor academic performance.
Risk-taking behaviour: definition and a brief background
- Adolescent’s common risk-taking behaviours
- Sexual-risk behaviour
- Substance abuse
Gender differences in risk factors for adolescent cigarette smoking are well established (Tucker et al., 2008). Furthermore, illicit drug use has also been linked to pleasant states of consciousness, increased attention and status (Morejele et al., 2006).
Demographics and Risk-taking behaviour
As such, inferences between low socioeconomic status and high socioeconomic status will be used to articulate how socioeconomic status relates to risk-taking behavior. Adolescents from low socioeconomic status are more often associated with risky behavior and other offending behaviors than their counterparts from high socioeconomic status.
Adolescent’s help-seeking behaviour
- Help-seeking behaviour: brief background and definition
- Adolescent’s help-seeking: patterns and attitudes
In general, help-seeking behavior has also been found to be a form of coping that is highly dependent on other people. These variables may encourage or discourage the initiation or choice of help-seeking behavior. Help-seeking behavior has been found to be associated with more women than men (Van der Riet & Knoetze, 2004).
Theoretical framework
- Subjective expected utility (SEU)
- Prospect theory
- Framing
- Evaluation
- Applications and limitations of the prospect theory
- Self-esteem and Theoretical Framework
Kahneman and Tversky (1975) built the utility model of prospect theory from a number of discovered features of human decision-making behavior. Prospect theory may be more advanced and better than subjective expected utility theory, but it still has some of its shortcomings. Finally, similar to subjective expected utility theory, prospect theory does not adequately account for the distinct and direct effect that emotions have on people's decision making (Umeh, 2009).
Rationale
The alternative research hypothesis is as follows: There is a significant relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior. The questions included in the risk-taking behavior questionnaire of the current study are described in section A of the final questionnaire in Appendix A. Therefore, determining correlations between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior was not possible, especially using parametric correlations (or conventional methods of correlations).
Methodology
Aims and hypotheses
- Aims
- Hypotheses
- Hypothesis 2 (H1)
The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior among a population of late adolescent university students studying at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus, in South Africa. In short, given the prevalence of adolescent risk behavior and its many different possible causes (Flisher et al., 1993a; Trzesniewski et al., 2006), this study was guided by the following key question: What is The relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior among late college-attending adolescents. What is the demographic profile of adolescents who engage in risk-taking behavior at the University of KwaZulu-Natal.
Research design
- Cross-sectional Research Design
- Correlation-based Research
- Quantitative Research
For example, a cross-sectional study will confirm that the individual engages in risk-taking behavior, but will not predict a change in that behavior over time. For example, a correlation study between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior would indicate that the higher the self-esteem, the lower the level of risk-taking behavior. For example, a correlation between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior will not necessarily mean that a poor self-esteem causes risk-taking behavior, because other excluded factors such as environment, peer pressure and personality can also be responsible for risk-taking behavior.
Instruments
The second set of the questionnaire is derived from the work of Flisher and colleagues (1993) to assess risk-taking behavior in adolescents. The adapted risk-taking scale for the current study consisted of two parts, which were mainly drawn from parts 2 and 3 of the original risk-taking questionnaire by Flisher et al. As a result, the current study also focused on observable risk behavior and questions about attitudes and beliefs were excluded.
Sampling
To determine validity, content validity, measurement validity, and construct validity are the primary aspects of validity to be examined (Finchilescu, 2010), and only the first two mentioned were relevant and considered for the validity of the current study. The questionnaire of the current study had strong content validity due to its relatively strong face validity and received approval from expert judges. For example, there is no doubt that the questionnaire of the current study measures what it is supposed to measure because the items in the questionnaire demonstrate authenticity and measure the constructs of the domain under investigation (that is, self-esteem and risk-taking behavior), and it has obtained the approval of the ethics committee and the supervisor.
Data collection procedure
Following the group administration approach, the researcher asked permission from some lecturers (known to the researcher in the Department of Psychology) to complete these questionnaires a few minutes before the end of their lectures. At the time of filling out the questionnaires, the researcher was available to answer follow-up questions that required clarity. The researcher distributed some questionnaires to qualified participants to complete as they gathered in social group settings.
Sample
- Age
- Sex
- Race
- Home language
- Academic year
The gender distribution for participants was as follows: female respondents comprised the sample participants, while male respondents were representative of the participants (see Figure 2 below). However, home language was excluded from further analysis in this study because most languages were minimally represented. The distribution of participation in terms of academic year ranged from 3% to 51%. Most of the participants were in the second year of the participant study.
Data analysis
- Primary Tools of Analysis
- Detailed Analysis Procedures for Risk-taking Behaviour
- Detailed Analysis Procedures for Self-esteem
This overall score for risk-taking behavior is derived from the ten-item risk-taking behavior scale mentioned above. That is, participants who obtained a score of 0 – 2 had low risk taking, indicating that risk involvement is one of the most common risk factors. Therefore, these common risk factors were the area of focus in the common risk behavior subscale.
Ethical Considerations
Suggested scoring guidelines were applied directly from the original self-esteem scale (that is, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, RSS). The guidelines were followed to calculate the self-esteem score before classifying self-esteem into two categories. Low self-esteem and high self-esteem categories were formulated to determine the level of self-esteem among participants.
Anticipated problems
This means that 19% (35) of the total sample reported never taking a risk. This current study investigated the relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior among adolescents studying at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg campus. Patterns of risk-taking behavior and how they relate to demographics were also revealed in this study.
Results
Risk-taking behaviour
- Summary: levels of risk-taking behaviour
- Patterns of Risk-taking behaviour
The remaining 66% of participants were classified as either experimenters or occasional drinkers (see Table 4.3 below). About 52% of the participants were classified as regular smokers according to Table 4.4 below, as they were found to have smoked cigarettes for more than five days in the last month. Less than half of the participants (48%) who indicated that they had ever smoked a cigarette were classified as either experimenters or occasional cigarette smokers, defined as having smoked cigarettes on fewer than five days in the past month.
Findings on Self-reported Self-esteem
- Summary results of Self-esteem
- Relationship between Self-esteem and Demographics
The relationship between self-esteem and each demographic variable (ie, age, race, academic level, and gender) was analyzed, and the result showed no significant correlations except for the correlations between race and self-esteem. However, the next paragraph will elaborate on the only significant relationship that was confirmed between race and self-esteem. This is why such a correlation between race and self-esteem will not be addressed nor included in the discussion chapter.
Relationship between Self-esteem and Risk-taking Behaviour
This study found that there is no significant relationship between self-esteem and risk behavior among adolescent students studying at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus. These excluded forms of risk behavior could have correlated with each other or shed more light on the relationship with self-esteem. A more comprehensive risk-taking scale that could have been used in this study is the Adolescent Risk-taking Questionnaire (ARQ), which was used in the adolescent risk study by Essau (2004).
Discussion
Significant findings
- Relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behaviour
- Causes of Risk-taking behaviour
This indicates that any apparent relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior was not significant because no correlation was found between the two variables. Likewise, Essau (2004) found a significant correlation between adolescents' engagement in risk behavior and their risk perception. This section concludes by acknowledging that no relationship between self-esteem and risk-taking behavior was found in this study, which is inconsistent with most studies.
Other significant findings
- Levels of risk-taking behaviour engagement
- Risk-taking behaviour patterns
- Alcohol consumption
- Cigarette smoking
- Dagga smoking
- Sexual-risk behaviour
The argument put forward is that young people who engage in one form of risk-taking behavior are more likely to engage in another or other forms of risk-taking behaviour. Despite having a few young people seriously engaged in risk-taking behaviour, those who reported lower-than-average risk-taking behavior remain a problem. This is necessary because most teenagers are more likely to take risky behaviors at this age or particular stage of adolescence.
Self-esteem patterns
Limitations and Implications
- Research design limitations
- Sample and sampling limitations
- Instruments or measures’ limitations
- Self-esteem scale
- Risk-taking behaviour
As such, multiple regression analysis and other possible variables associated with risk-taking behavior other than self-esteem alone could be considered. Therefore, other cultures, developing countries, and cross-national studies are suggested to lead studies on self-esteem and risk-taking behavior (Wild et al., 2004). The adapted risk behavior scale of the current study did not capture many aspects of risk behavior because it is a broad topic.
Recommendations
The first section of the scale measures young people's assessment of risk for 22 behavioral patterns, while the second section measures young people's frequency of engagement in risky behaviour. Finally, it is recommended that future studies take as a starting point the exploration of different relationships between adolescent risk-taking behavior and different specific areas of self-esteem or strict multidimensional self-esteem scales (Trzesniewski et al., 2006; Wild et al., 2004). In addition, further studies should examine associations between youth risk-taking behaviors and various specific domains of self-esteem among other cultures, universities, geographic areas, and developing countries.
Conclusion
It was also revealed that risky behavior was more common among men than women. However, no significant relationships were found between academic level and all forms of risk behavior examined. This consent form is intended for the following research topic: An investigation into the relationship between self-esteem and risk behavior among adolescent students studying at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg campus.
