The first problem I have identified lies in the use of the terms "citizenship" and "civil society". Based on the fact that there are citizens, it is assumed that civil society is in place.
From duty to instrumental
It is the engagement among citizens and with government that I suggest is the value of civil society and that can deepen democracy. Citizens seem to give no credence to the fact that civil society cannot exist without their participation and therefore there is some social responsibility to preserve it.
From moral to rational
In addition, the moral value of engagement between citizens is undermined by the fact that citizens seem to unite only when it helps to achieve a particular goal. We are inherently social beings, and thus the value of civil society lies in the importance of our interactions with others.
From group to individual
Declaration on human rights.'4 In the same way, the European Union (EU) sees 'human rights as universal and indivisible. It therefore actively promotes and defends them both within its borders and in its relations abroad.'5 These suggest that human rights are considered to be central to the concept of democratic citizenship in liberal democratic thought.
The philosophical factors
If we assume, but do not admit, that there is a natural sympathy that unites citizens, it does not necessarily follow that civil society should be a moral sphere. Deontologists would therefore endorse views of civil society and citizenship that are based on a sense of duty to the state and fellow citizens.
The political factors
Another light in which these shifts can be seen is within the context of the deontological/teleological normative binary. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, there has been no real ideological competition for liberal democracy.
The economic factors
In the case of basic services, these industries can be linked to the provision of social citizenship, as suggested by Marshall, so it is undoubtedly problematic that the private market sphere is becoming increasingly involved in this issue of the public domain. He worries that the ever-increasing presence of the market and market values in the public domain is undermining the egalitarian promises of citizenship.
The social factors
Citizens' views of what belongs in the public sphere have become clouded by their private concerns. For example, Rawls argues that the common good is purely procedural: it lies in the fact that citizens are free to choose their own good (Rawls 1971: 246).
The value of civil society
Significant here is the fact that citizens are all governed by one conception of the good: the general will. He argues that having a moral sphere based on a common good is essential for the maintenance of society.
The value of participation
The universal good (that which should unite citizens to act together) in my conception of civil society is that there is value in shared participation for both citizens and democracy. The diversity of actors in an active civil society enables a deeper understanding of issues and of fellow citizens and enables citizens to look beyond their own immediate problems and positions (2007:23). It should be clear by now that civil society is valuable for a number of reasons.
In order to ensure this value for society, it is important that our ideas about civil society reflect the kind of civil society that allows for real representation and unification of citizens under common ideas about the good. The next section will discuss what kind of conception of civil society is needed to ensure that its intrinsic value is not lost. It is this view of civil society that I support and will discuss throughout this thesis.
The defining features of my conception of civil society
- Duty
- Other-regarding
- Shared goals
- Finding the balance
- Self-interest and human rights
The value of a sense of duty is that there is added and permanent value to participating in civil society – regardless of the outcome of the participation, there is value in the fact that you are fulfilling a duty. This fundamentalism suggests that there are people on the fringes of society – people who do not express their views in the public sphere but act against prevailing conceptions of the good. Therefore, it is important that citizens act in the best interest of all citizens and work together as they are directly involved in running the state.
When in the public sphere, citizens' central concern should not be their own economic gain. In public space, aspects such as the duty and interests of others must be taken into account when making decisions. In the following chapters, I will examine empirical cases in the light of the concept of civil society that I have presented.
Bureaucracy
- Setting the scene
- Identifying the problem
- Analysing the implications
- Conclusion
This diminished sense of duty can also be seen in civil servants taking advantage of their right to strike. While this may be legitimate in many cases, officials still act against (or sabotage) the government rather than working with it. The officials who accept bribes to secure their services are an even clearer example of the self-interested behavior that has permeated the civil service.
The government must strengthen the value of civil servants both for the civil servants themselves and for the general public. The job of civil servants is to help citizens, so the services they provide are free, but this does not reduce the value of civil servants' time. Bureaucracy is therefore a clear demonstration of how the attitude of government affects the attitude of civil servants and citizens.
Education
- Setting the scene
- Identifying the problem
- Analysing the implications
- Conclusion
A survey of 16 KwaMashu schools showed that 75 percent of students considered the school to be an unsafe place (Zulu et al. 2004: 172). It is important that the government makes active efforts to ensure that those working at all levels in the Department of Education are fully aware of the value and importance of education in South Africa. To enable citizens to act in ways that could improve the situation, they must be made aware of the scale of the problem.
In addition to the tangible tasks of improving education, it is clear that the government must be aware of the need to address the attitude of citizens. For the success of the South African education system, it is essential that educators feel valued so that they can face their challenges with courage and enthusiasm. It is clear that in communities where there is commitment from parents, churches and other community organisations, there have been tangible improvements to the education of the learners.
The SANDF
Setting the scene
Sisulu expressed his concern about the low morale in the lower ranks of the SANDF, but called the demand for a 30 percent increase "deliberately provocative".75 Mthethwa, the police minister, also condemned the strike, albeit for different reasons. The question of whether members of the military should take part in public protest actions and be allowed to join trade unions came before the Constitutional Court in 1998. The Minister of Defense and the Chief of the SANDF opposed the ruling only in respect of joining .
Sisulu was particularly upset about the actions of the soldiers as she and her department were working on a solution to the problem. Sisulu feels that this is often the problem and can therefore be solved if she is given the power to determine Army salaries separately from the rest of the civil service. Leaked reports on the state of the army "allegedly warned that morale in the army is so low that it poses a threat to national security."91 While Sisulu refused to present the reports to parliament on the grounds that it was not complete and had not been presented to the cabinet, she acted on some recommendations from the report.
Identifying the problem
In May 2008, The Saturday Star reported that three-quarters of all submariners trained each year left the navy.98 These vacancies undermine the SANDF's ability to operate effectively – there is not enough expertise to use and maintain the equipment that then in many cases is allowed to expire. Significantly, it appears that Sisulu, while accusing soldiers of failing to do their duty, is now guilty of the same offence. Members of the Cabinet are collectively and individually responsible to Parliament for the exercise of their powers and the performance of their functions.
Cabinet members must act in accordance with the constitution and provide parliament with full and regular reports on matters under their control. When working conditions were unacceptable, they chose the most effective course of action to solve the problem. As mentioned earlier, soldiers in the US Army are generally treated with the utmost respect – as is the case in most of the developed world.
Analysing the implications
Joining the SANDF should be considered a 'noble calling', as Zuma put it.108 Zuma announced that 'we want to invest in the development of the Defense Force and the young people who are drawn to this noble calling to serve the country to defend. Perhaps part of the problem lies in the fact that there has not been much work for the SANDF in the years since Apartheid. It is clear that the South African Police Services (SAPS) are struggling to combat the rampant crime in the country.
Currently, South Africa faces no major external security threats and as such the force has lost much of its value in the eyes of the public. It then becomes an unnecessary and very expensive institution in the eyes of the public. Although the scandal is not directly related to the military's actual soldiers, it has further lowered public opinion of the military.
Conclusion
The subject is aware of government operations, but is not involved in the decision-making process (Almond and Verba 1963:17). Much of the government's interaction with civil society is through partnerships with professionalized Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (Heller 2009:140). I suggest that it is the role of government to ensure that citizens see the civil service as a service rather than a business.
South Africa has a bloated civil service as the government creates jobs in the bureaucracy in its efforts to tackle the unemployment crisis. It is difficult for citizens to view positions in the civil service as honorable when the government creates these jobs just for the sake of job creation. The poor treatment of civil servants by the government can be illustrated by the example of the SANDF.
On the economic front, the influence of capitalism in the country on the government and citizens has caused many more problems. This is clearly reflected in the bureaucracy in which the government has not actively expressed the value of services and citizens subsequently regard working for the government as a job (and not a very good one) rather than as a duty.
