CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Nature of the Study
2. Affixation
Affixation is prefix and suffix (Nelson, 1985). Affixation adalah proses penambahan affix padasuatusatuan, baik satuan itu berupa bentuk tunggal maupun bentuk kompleks, untuk membentuk kata (Tarigan, 1984). It means that affixation is the process of adding an affix to the unit; whether it is a single unit or complex shapes, to form words. Therefore, based on the statements, it can be concluded that affixation is the process of adding
words at the beginning and ending of which change the meaning of basic words. It is also as the process of adding affixes to roots or bases in order to vary function or modify meaning. It transforms a system or word from one part of speech to another (from one word to another) (Payne, 2011).
Besides, affixation is the study branch of morpheme studying about root form, change of word, and impact of change of meaning. They can make different word or meaning from addition of word. They are very important in linguistic, education of Language and in writing. To get addition of word or change of word and meaning can be used affixation. Therefore, identifying affixation is recognizing/ finding/ discovering of adding words at the beginning and ending of which change the meaning of basic words.
3. Reading Comprehension: “Reading comprehension is knowledge about the world as well as on knowledge of language print”(Omalley1996).
Next, Nunan (2003) says “reading comprehension is the goal of reading”.
Thus, Reading comprehension means understanding what has been read. It is an active or processes that depended not only on comprehension but also the student‟s experience and prior knowledge.
4. Authentic text: “Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real-life purposes by real people.” (Nuttall, 1996).
Therefore, it can be said that "The Contribution of Affixation Mastery on Students’ Reading Comprehension of Authentic Texts at English Education Department of FTIK IAIN Padangsidimpuan " is
meant by recognizing the complete knowledge or great skill in compounding the knowledge or skill process change of adding words or letter to the base word or root in the process of combining information from a real text that has proof for real life purposes by real people with readers‟ own background knowledge to build meaning of English Education Department of FTIK IAIN Padangsidimpuan related to the process and functions of the affixation.
affix is a morpheme attached to a stem (core/ root or basic) of a word to create new words. In English language, words are created by affixing morphemes to roots of words. According to Bauer and Katamba (2009), affixation is considered as the process of fixing affixes: prefixes, suffixes and infixes to the stem of the given word or words. Katamba (1994) further illustrates the fact that affixation is generally illustrated as the bound morphemes which are used in amalgamation with other morphemes such as root or stem.
Clark (2009) articulates that those affixes are used in identifying and analyzing the complex words with reference to their meaning. The affixation particularly analyzes the internal structure of given words for they are used as building blocks in a complex word. In addition, the derivation of new words is dependent upon the fixing or affixing either prefixes or suffixes to the root or the stem of a word or existing lexis. In English Language, derivational prefixes change the meaning of the words to which they are fixed whilst some change the parts of speech such as changing a noun to a verb or changing a verb to an adjective etc. it is also noteworthy, suffixes which are derivational change parts of speech which they also change the meaning of the words to which they are affixed.
2. Affixation
a. The Concept of Affixation
The word “Affixation” is from the basic word affix + ation.
Affixation means the origin or development of something, especially a
word (Hornby, 357). It is formation process by which a new word is built from a stem – usually through the addition of an affix – that changes the word class and / or basic meaning of the word. Then, Derivation or said by affixation is the formation of lexemes by means of affixation/ can be said affixes, conversion, reduplication, and root-and-pattern morphology. It is stated also by Parera (1990) in his
“Morfologi” book:
Jika kita berbicara mengenai derivasi, berarti kita berbicara tentang salah satu aspek yang lain dari hubunganan taramorfem dan kata. Pada dasarnya, morfem-morfem terikat berfungsi membentuk kata.
Salah satu akibat dari fungsi pembentukan ini ialah sebuah kata bermorfem jamak secara sintaksis berdistribusi dan mempunyai ekuivalen dengan sebuah kata bermorfem tunggal, maka morfem itu disebut derivasi.
Translation:
If we talk about derivation, so we talk about one of the other from the relation between morpheme and word.
Basically, bound morphemes have the function to form the word. One of the effect from this forming word is a word that has many morphemes in distribution syntax and have the equivalent with a free word, so that morphemes are said by derivation.
It means that affixation is the forming of morpheme and the word. From their formation, it can be formed the derivation word.
Morpheme in the affixes formation or is known by affixation is the bound morpheme. Morphemes are the smallest individually meaningful elements in the utterances of a language (Parera, 1990).
Then, it is stated by Matthews (1991) also as the abstract unit.
Furthermore, Sari (1988) states that a morpheme can be loosely defined as a minimal unit having more or less constant meaning associated with more or less constant form. Then, Division of morpheme into various types as follows (Sari: 1988):
Figure 1 Morpeheme types
Verbs articles
Adjectives conjunctions
From the figure above, morpheme will be explained as follows:
a. Lexical morpheme is morpheme has meaning. Lexical morpheme divided into:
1) Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words (noun, verb and adjective). The example is below (Brinton, 1984):
Morpheme
Lexical grammatical
Free bound free bound
Nouns prepositions inflectional derivational
Table 1
The Example of Free Morpheme
Noun Adjective Adverb Verb Beauty Beautiful Beautifully Beautify Comfort Comfortable Comfortably Comfort Protection Protective Protectively Protect Success Successful Successfully Succeed 2) Bound morphemes are those that cannot stand alone by itself
as a word (free and bound morpheme). The example is below (Brinton, 1984):
Table 2
The Example of Bound Morpheme Word Free morpheme Bound
morpheme
Boys Boy S
Cats Cat S
Goes Go Es
Sings Sing S
Smaller Small Er
Studied Study Ed
Oldest Old Est
b. Grammatical morpheme is morpheme has not meaning.
Grammatical morpheme divided into:
1) Free morphemes are those that can stand alone as words (preposition, article and conjunction). The example is below (Brinton, 1984):
Table 3
The Example of Free Morpheme
Prepositions Article Conjunction
At The And
from an But
in A Or
on For
to because
of if
2) Bound morphemes are those that cannot stand alone as a word. Bound morpheme divided into:
(a) Inflectional morpheme is morphemes which serve a purely grammatical function, never creating a different word, but only a different form of the same word. The example is below(Sari, 1983):
Table 4
The Example of Inflectional Morpheme Free Inflectional morpheme Word
Man E Men ( plural)
Walk Ed Walked (past )
Wait Ing Waiting (present participle
Pretty Est Prettiest (superlative)
Happy Er Happier ( comparative)
(b) Derivational morpheme is morphemes which derive (create) new words by either changing the meaning or the part of speech or both. The example is below (Sari, 1983):
Table 5
The Example of Derivational Morpheme Free Derivational
morpheme
Word
Happy Un Unhappy
Kind Ness Kindness
Like Dis Dislike
Dark Ness Darkness
Full Ness Fullness
Pay Ment Payment
Agree Ment Agreement
Therefore, it can be concluded that morpheme is bound morphemes which derive (create) new words by either changing the meaning or the part of speech or both.
Furthermore, affix is a letter or a group of letters added to the beginning or end of a word to change its meaning. Affixationis prefix and suffix (Hornby, 23). Affixation is commonly accompanied by modification of the base, sometimes just in spelling, and sometimes in pronunciation as well. In achievable, for example, the mute e of achieve is dropped, while in persuasion we have a change in the consonant at the end of persuade (Rodney, 2005). It means that, affixation is the process of adding an affix to the unit; whether it be a single unit or complex shapes, to form words.
Then, according to Sibarani (2006), affixation is the bound morphemes which are added to a word which change the meaning/
category or the grammatical function of the word. It is the type of bound morpheme and limited in number in a language and generally
classified into two types, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word are suffixes and prefixes. It is also stated by Parera (1990):
Proses afiksasi merupakan satu proses yang paling umum dalam bahasa. Proses afiksis terjadi apabila sebuah morfem terikat dibubuhkan atau dilekatkan pada sebuah morfem bebas secara urutan lurus. Berdasarkan posisi morfem terikat terhadap morfem bebas tersebut, proses afiksis dapat dibedakan atas a. pembubuhan depan, b.
pembubuhan tengah: dalam bahasa Inggris proses pembubuhan tengah tidak ada, dan c. proses pembubuhan akhir.
Translation:
Affixation process is a general process in the language. It happens if a bound morpheme connected or added in the free morpheme in right process. Based on the position of bound morpheme to the free morpheme, affixes process can be divided into prefix, infix, there is no infix in English, and suffix.
It means that affixes are process placing of affixes types (prefixes and suffixes and there is no infix in English language) at a base or basic word and of which change the meaning and the grammatical function of a root or stem or basic word. That process which most commonly in language. Affixes happen if a bound morpheme to be put down to a free morpheme. A free morpheme can change of function, form word class or meaning with existence of addition of word. While, English has over sixty common derivational affixes, and there is no theoretical limit to their number. Before going to the types of derivational affixes, it is better to define them. In Words, Meaning and Vocabulary book, Affixation is (Howard, 2000):
Affixation can change the word class of the item they are added to and establish words as members of the various word classes. They are inner with respect to inflections, so that if derivations and inflections so occur, derivations are inner, closer to the stem, and inflections are outer, furthest from stem, as shown in the table below. Example base form + derivation + inflection
Frightened fright en ed
Activating active ate ing
Payments pay ment s
Resignations resign ation s
As a final observation, it must be said that derivational affixes do not always cause a change in grammatical class. The derivational affixes re-, for example, derives reconsider from consider, yet both are verbs. Also, compare populate/ depopulate, intelligent/
unintelligent, probable/ improbable. Furthermore, a shift in grammatical class is not always signaled by an overt marker. Thus, staff and star are basically nouns, but they can also be used as verbs, with no affix as in the sentence. The manager did not staff the restaurant properly and I do not think Susan is the best actor to star in that new film‟. A change in word class without the addition of an affix is known as conversion. Sometimes a word consisting of two or more syllables may undergo a change of word class, with the only indicator being a change in the stress pattern. For example in the following lists, stress distinguishes the nouns on the left from the verbs on the right. („stress‟ as used here means the impression of more energy in the articulation of the stressed syllable, which usually results in its sounding louder and longer than other syllables in the same word.
The symbol („) occurs in front of the stressed syllable).
We shall regard „stress‟ as derivational affix.
Nouns verbs
„contract con‟tract
„defect de‟fect
„import im‟port
„permit per‟mit
„present pre‟sent
„reject re‟ject.
Then, it is also stated in Contemporary Linguistic Analysis:
An Introduction Third Edition that affixation forms a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from that of its base through the addition of an affix or affixes (William & Michael, 1996). Next, the addition of an Affixation is (a prefix, a suffix, and, in some languages, an infix) is called derivational affixation. But in English, Affixation is both suffixes and prefixes (Brinton, 109). Therefore, based on the explanations, it can be concluded that Affixation is the processes of adding words at the beginning and ending of which change the meaning and the grammatical function of a root or stem or basic word.
b. Types of Affixation
There are two kinds of affixation in English that is prefix and suffix.
1. Prefix
Prefix can be defined also as a syllable placed at the beginning of a word to form a new word (Jayanthi, 2003). According to Sari, prefix is added to the beginning of free morphemes or other prefixes (Sari, 96). While, Sibarani (2006) states prefix is the affixes which are added to the beginning of word. So, prefix is a letter or group of letters added to beginning of word to change the meaning and form of word.
Some important prefixes are mention below (Jayanthi:342):
1) A- means on: asleep, ashore, aside, away, aboard.
2) A- means out, from: arise, awake, alight.
3) Ab- means from, away: abuse, avert, abstract.
4) Ad-, ac-, af-, ag-, al-, an-, ap-, ar-, as-, at-, a-, example:
adjoin, accord, affect, aggrieve, allege, announce, appoint, arrest, assign, attach, avail.
5) Ambi- means on both sides: ambidextrous, ambivalent, ambiguous, ambition, amputate.
6) Ante-, anti-, an- means before: antedate, anticipate, ancestor, ante chamber, antecedent.
7) Anti- means against: antidote, anti-romantic, anti-social, anti-national.
8) Arch- means chief: arch-bishop, arch-enemy.
9) Auto- means self: autobiography, autocrat, automobile, and auto suggestion, automatic, autograph.
10) Bene- means well: benediction, benefit, benevolent, benefactor.
11) Bi- means two: bicycle, bilateral, bigamy, biweekly, biennial, bisect, binocular.
12) Circum- means around: circumference, circumstance, circumscribe, circumnavigation, circumvent, circuit.
13) Co- means with: co-operate, co-ordinate, co-existance.
14) Con-, col-, com-, cor- means with, together: contend, collect, combine, correct.
15) Contra- , counter means against: contradict, contraband, contraceptive, contravene, controversy, counteract, counterbalance, counter attach, counter-revolution, counterfeit.
16) De- means down: descend, dethrone, depose, defame, demoralize, denationalize.
17) Demi- means half: demigod, official, demi-paradise.
18) Dis- means apart: disjoin, differ, divide, disconnect, discord, disorganize, disparity, dispassionate.
19) En-, em- means in, on: endanger, engulf, enable, enrage, enlist, embolden, embody, embark, and emplane.
20) Equi- means equally: equilateral, equidistant, equivalent.
21) Ex- means out of: expel, extract, extend, express, exhale, extinguish, and ex-president.
22) Extra- means beyond: extraordinary, extravagant, and extraterritorial.
23) Hetro- means different: heterodox, heterogeneous.
24) Hexa- means six: hexagon, hexameter.
25) Hyper- means over: hypercritical, hypersensitive, hypertension.
26) In-, il-, im, ir- means not: insecure, illegal, imprudent, irregular, indecent, invisible, incurable, indelicate, illegible, illiterate, illogical, immaterial, impious, impracticable, improper, irrational, irresistible, irresponsible.
27) Inter- means between: intervene, introduce, intercaste, international, inter collegiate.
28) Intra- means within: intravenous, intramuscular.
29) Male-, mali-, mal-, means ill, evil: malefactor, malevolent, malignant, malicious, maltreat, malpractice, malnutrition.
30) Mis- means ill, error: mischief, misrule, mismanages, misappropriate, and mislead, mishap, misconduct, mistrust.
31) Mono- means alone: monogamy, monopoly, monotheism, monotomy, mono syllable, monologue.
32) Meta- means met: metaphor, metonymy.
33) Non- means not: violence, sense, non-cooperation.
34) Ob- means against: object, occupy, and offend.
35) Omni- means all: omnipresent, omnipotent, omnivorous, omniscient.
36) Over- means above, beyond: overflow, overcharge, overfed, overjoyed, overbear.
37) Post- means after: postwar, postscript, postmortem, postdated, postpone.
38) Pre- means before: prefix, prevent, predict, prewar.
39) Pseudo- means false: pseudo critic, pseudo scientist.
40) Re- means again: reclaim, refund, renew, return, revive, renascent, research.
41) Semi- means half: semicolon, semiofficial, semifinal.
42) Sub-, suc-, suf-, sug-, sum-, sup-, sur-, sus- means under:
subdue, succeed, suffer, suggest, summon, support, surmount, sustain, sub conscious, sub human, sub caste, subordinate, substandard, subjugate.
43) Super-, sur- means above, over: superfine, superfluous, surplus, survive, survey.
44) sym-, syn-, syl-, sy- means with, together: synony, sympathy, syllable, system.
45) Trans-, tra-, tres-, means across: transmit, traverse, trespass, transfer, transit, translate, transcribe, transcend.
46) Tri- means three: tricycle, trinity, triangle, tricolor.
47) To- means this: today, tonight, tomorrow.
48) Ultra- means beyond: ultra-modem, ultraviolet, ultra marine.
49) Un- means back, against, to reverse the action: undo, unwind, unearth, unman, and unfold.
50) Under- means beneath, below: undersell, undercharge, undergo, underground, underestimate, undertake.
51) Vice- means in place of: vice president, viceroy.
52) With- means against, back: withdraw, withhold, withstand.
2. Suffix
According to the Oxford Advanced Learners‟ Dictionary defines suffix is a letter, sound or syllable added at the end of a word to make another word (Hornby:865). While, Sari (1988) says that suffix is added to the end of free morpheme or other suffixes. Next, in Jayanthi‟s book, she said that suffix is a syllable placed at the end of a word to form a new word. So, suffix is a letter or group of letters added to ending of word on basic word to change the meaning and form of word.
Some important suffixes are mention below (Robert Sibarani,36):
1) –able = eat + able = eatable, change N and used to form an adjective.
2) –age = break + age = breakage, change N and used to form a noun.
3) –al = verb + al = verbal, change V and used to form an adjective.
4) –an = Luther+ an = Lutheran, change N and used to form a noun.
5) –ance = assist +ance= assistance, change V and used to form a noun.
6) –ant = assist + ant = assistant, change V and used to form an noun.
7) –ary = planet + ary = planetary, change N and used to form an adjective.
8) –ful = fear + ful = fearful, change N and used to form an adjective.
9) –ation = inform+ tion = information change N and used to form a noun.
10) –cide = insect +cide = insecticide, change N and used to form a noun.
11) –cy = fan + cy = accuracy, change N and used to form a noun.
12) –dom = free + dom = freedom, change N and used to form a noun.
13) –ed = look + ed = looked, change V and used to form verb.
14) –ee = employ+ ee= employee, change V and used to form a noun.
15) –eer = auction+ eer= auctioneer, change V and used to form a noun.
16) –en = eat + en = eaten, change V and used to form a verb.
17) –er = read + er = reader , change V and used to form a noun.
18) –ery = cook + ery = cookery, change V and used to form a noun.
19) -es/-s = box + es = boxes, change N and used to form a plural.
20) es/-s = read + s = reads, change V and used to form a present.
21) –ese = Japan + ese = Japanese, change N and used to form an adjective.
22) –ess = lion + ess = lioness, change N and used to form a noun.
23) –est = happy +est = happiest, change adj and used to form superlative adjective.
24) –ette = kitchen+ ette= kitchenette, change N and used to form a noun.
25) –fic = specify+ fic = specific, change V and used to form a noun.
26) –fy = beauty+ fy = beautify, change N and used to form a verb.
27) –hood = boy + hood= boyhood, change N and used to form a abstract noun.
28) –ial = colony + al = colonial, change N and used to form an adjective.
29) –ian = optic + ian= opticial, change N and used to form an adjective.
30) –ical = linguist+ ical= linguistical, change N and used to form an adjective.
31) –ing = smoke + ing= smoking, change V and used to form a participle present of verb.
32) –ion = act + ion = action, change N and used to form a noun.
33) –ish = child + ish= childish, change N and used to form an adjective.
34) –ism = hero + ism = heroism, change N and used to form a noun.
35) –ist = public + ist= publicist, change adj and used to form a noun.
36) –ity = odd + ity= oddity, change N and used to form a abstract noun.
37) –ive = act + ive = active, change N and used to form an adjective.
38) –ize = drama + ize = dramatize, change N and used to form a verb.
39) –less = spirit + less = spiritless, change N and used to form an adjective.
40) –let = book + let = booklet, change N and used to form a noun.
41) –ling = duck + ling = duckling, change N and used to form a noun.
42) –ly = slow + ly = slowly, change adj and used to form an adverb.
43) –ment = state + ment = statement, change N and used to form a noun.
44) –ness = dry + ness = dryness, change N and used to form a noun.
45) –ous = danger+ ous = dangerous, change N and used to form an adjective.
46) –ship = friend + ship = friendship, change N and used to form a abstract noun.
47) –ster = young + ster = youngster, change N and used to form a noun.
48) –t = burn + t = burnt, change N and used to form a noun.
49) –th = grow + th= growth, change adj and used to form a noun.
50) –tude = magnet+ tude= magnitude, change N and used to form a noun.
51) –ty = loyal + ty= loyalty, change adj and used to form a noun.
52) –ule = glob + ule = globule, change N and used to form a noun.
53) –ure = legislate+ ure = legislature, change V and used to form a noun.
54) –y = dad + y = daddy, change N and used to form a noun.
In the other book, affixation has two kinds; class changing and class-maintaining. Then, Jackson and Amvela explain about class changing derivational affixes as follows (Howard &Amvela,2000):
Class changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added. Thus, resign, a verb + -ation gives resignation, a noun. Class maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word but change the meaning of the derivative (i.e. the word which results from the derivation).
Thus child, a noun + -hood gives childhood, still a noun, but now an „abstract‟ rather than a „concrete‟ noun.
Class-changing derivational affixes, once added to a stem, form a derivative which is automatically marked by that affix as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. The derivations are said to determine or govern the word class of the stem. It shall discuss in turn noun, verb, adjective and adverb derivational affixes. Each of them has two distinct patterns of derivation depending on the word class with which the affix is associated. For example, nouns may be derived from either verbs or adjectives; verbs from either nouns or adjectives; adjectives from either nouns or verbs; and adverbs from either adjectives or nouns. English class-changing derivations are mainly suffixes. It is shown below (Howard
&Amvela,2000):
Noun derivational affixes are also called
‘nominalizers’:
Verb Affix Noun
Leak -age leakage
Argue (e) -ment argument
Betray -al betrayal
Resign -ation resignation
Defen (d) -ce defence
Disturb -ance disturbance
Refer -ee referee