Areas of Application

Adler anticipated the future direction of the helping professions by calling upon therapists to become social activists and by addressing the prevention and reme-diation of social conditions that were contrary to social interest and resulted in human problems. Adler’s pioneering efforts on prevention services in mental health led him to increasingly advocate for the role of Individual Psychology in schools and families. Because Individual Psychology is based on a growth model, not a medical model, it is applicable to such varied spheres of life as child guidance; parent–child counseling; couples counseling; family counseling and therapy; group counseling and therapy; individual counseling with children, adolescents, and adults; cultural confl icts; correctional and rehabilitation counseling; and mental health institutions.

Adler’s basic ideas have been incorporated into the practices of school psychology, school counseling, the community mental health movement, and parent education.

Adlerian principles have been widely applied to substance abuse programs, social problems to combat poverty and crime, problems of the aged, school systems, reli-gion, and business.

a p p l i c at i o n t o e d u c at i o n

Adler (1930/1978) advocated training both teachers and parents in effective practices that foster the child’s social interests and result in a sense of competence and self-worth. Adler had a keen interest in apply-ing his ideas to education, especially in fi ndapply-ing ways to remedy faulty lifestyles of schoolchildren. He initiated a process to work with students in groups and to edu-cate parents and teachers. By providing teachers with ways to prevent and correct basic mistakes of children, he sought to promote social interest and mental health.

Adler was ahead of his time in advocating for schools to take an active role in de-veloping social skills and character education as well as teaching the basics. Many of the major teacher education models are based on principles of Adlerian psychol-ogy (see Albert, 1996). Besides Adler, the main proponent of Individual Psychol-ogy as a foundation for the teaching–learning process was Dreikurs (1968, 1971).

a p p l i c at i o n t o pa r e n t e d u c at i o n

Parent education seeks to im-prove the relationship between parent and child by promoting greater understand-ing and acceptance. Parents are taught how to recognize the mistaken goals of chil-dren and to use logical and natural consequences to guide chilchil-dren toward more productive behavior. Adlerian parent education also stresses listening to children, helping children accept the consequences of their behavior, applying emotion coaching, holding family meetings, and using encouragement. Two of the leading parent education programs in the United States—STEP (Dinkmeyer & McKay, 1997) and Active Parenting (Popkin, 1993)—are based on Adlerian principles.

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a p p l i c at i o n t o c o u p l e s c o u n s e l i n g

Adlerian therapy with couples is designed to assess a couple’s beliefs and behaviors while educating them in more effective ways of meeting their relational goals. Clair Hawes has developed an approach to couples counseling within the Adlerian brief therapy model. In addi-tion to addressing the compatibility of lifestyles, Hawes looks at the early recollecaddi-tions of the marriage and each partner’s relationship to a broad set of life tasks, including occupation, social relationships, intimate relationships, spirituality, self-care, and self-worth (Bitter et al., 1998; Hawes, 1993; Hawes & Blanchard, 1993). Carlson, Watts, and Maniacci (2006) describe how Adlerians achieve the goals of brief couples therapy: they foster social interest, assist couples in decreasing feelings of inferiority and overcoming discouragement, help couples modify their views and goals, help couples to feel a sense of quality in their relationships, and pro-vide skill-building opportunities. Therapists aim to create solutions for problems, increase choices of couples, and help clients discover and use their individual and collective resources.

The full range of techniques applicable to other forms of counseling can be used when working with couples. In couples counseling, couples are taught specifi c techniques that enhance communication and cooperation. Some of these tech-niques are listening, paraphrasing, giving feedback, having marriage conferences, listing expectations, doing homework, and enacting problem solving. Adlerians use psychoeducational methods and skills training in counseling couples. For use-ful books on this topic, see Carlson and Dinkmeyer (2003) and Sperry, Carlson, and Peluso (2006).

Adlerians will sometimes see clients as a couple, sometimes individually, and then alternately as a couple and as individuals. Rather than looking for who is at fault in the relationship, the therapist considers the lifestyles of the partners and the inter-action of the two lifestyles. Emphasis is given to helping them decide if they want to maintain their relationship, and, if so, what changes they are willing to make.

a p p l i c at i o n t o fa m i ly c o u n s e l i n g

With its emphasis on the fam-ily constellation, holism, and the freedom of the therapist to improvise, Adler’s approach contributed to the foundation of the family therapy perspective. Adleri-ans working with families focus on the family atmosphere, the family constellation, and the interactive goals of each member (Bitter, 2009). The family atmosphere is the climate characterizing the relationship between the parents and their attitudes toward life, gender roles, decision making, competition, cooperation, dealing with confl ict, responsibility, and so forth. This atmosphere, including the role models the parents provide, infl uences the children as they grow up. The therapeutic proc-ess seeks to increase awarenproc-ess of the interaction of the individuals within the family system. Those who practice Adlerian family therapy strive to understand the goals, beliefs, and behaviors of each family member and the family as an entity in its own right. Adler’s and Dreikurs’s infl uence on family therapy is covered in more depth in Chapter 14.

a p p l i c at i o n t o g r o u p c o u n s e l i n g

Adler and his coworkers used a group approach in their child guidance centers in Vienna as early as 1921 (Dreikurs, 1969). Dreikurs extended and popularized Adler’s work with groups

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and used group psychotherapy in his private practice for more than 40 years.

Although Dreikurs introduced group therapy into his psychiatric practice as a way to save time, he quickly discovered some unique characteristics of groups that made them an effective way of helping people change. Inferiority feelings can be challenged and counteracted effectively in groups, and the mistaken concepts and values that are at the root of social and emotional problems can be deeply infl u-enced because the group is a value-forming agent (Sonstegard & Bitter, 2004).

The rationale for Adlerian group counseling is based on the premise that our problems are mainly of a social nature. The group provides the social context in which members can develop a sense of belonging, social connectedness, and com-munity. Sonstegard and Bitter (2004) write that group participants come to see that many of their problems are interpersonal in nature, that their behavior has social meaning, and that their goals can best be understood in the framework of social purposes.

The use of early recollections is a unique feature of Adlerian group counseling.

As mentioned earlier, from a series of early memories, individuals can get a clear sense of their mistaken notions, current attitudes, social interests, and possible fu-ture behavior. Through the mutual sharing of these early recollections, members develop a sense of connection with one another, and group cohesion is increased.

The group becomes an agent of change because of the improved interpersonal relationships among members and the emergence of hope.

We particularly value the way Adlerian group counselors implement action strategies at each of the group sessions and especially during the reorientation stage when new decisions are made and goals are modifi ed. To challenge self-limiting assumptions, members are encouraged to act as if they were the persons they want to be. They are asked to “catch themselves” in the process of repeating old patterns that have led to ineffective or self-defeating behavior. The mem-bers come to appreciate that if they hope to change, they need to set tasks for themselves, apply group lessons to daily life, and take steps in fi nding solutions to their problems. This fi nal stage is characterized by group leaders and mem-bers working together to challenge erroneous beliefs about self, life, and others.

During this stage, members are considering alternative beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes.

Adlerian group counseling can be considered a brief approach to treatment.

The core characteristics associated with brief group therapy include rapid estab-lishment of a strong therapeutic alliance, clear problem focus and goal alignment, rapid assessment, emphasis on active and directive therapeutic interventions, a focus on strengths and abilities of clients, an optimistic view of change, a focus on both the present and the future, and an emphasis on tailoring treatment to the unique needs of clients in the most time-effi cient manner possible (Carlson et al., 2006).

Adlerian brief group therapy is addressed by Sonstegard, Bitter, Pelonis-Peneros, and Nicoll (2001). For more on the Adlerian approach to group coun-seling, refer to Theory and Practice of Group Counseling (Corey, 2012, chap. 7) and Sonstegard and Bitter (2004).

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a d l e r i a n t h e r a p y f r o m

a m u lt i c u lt u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e

Strengths From a Diversity Perspective

Adlerian theory addressed social equality issues and social embeddedness of humans long before multiculturalism assumed central importance in the profes-sion (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Adler introduced notions with implications toward multiculturalism that have as much or more relevance today as they did during Adler’s time (Pedersen, as cited in Nystul, 1999b). Some of these ideas include (1) the importance of the cultural context, (2) the emphasis on health as opposed to pathology, (3) a holistic perspective on life, (4) the value of understanding indi-viduals in terms of their core goals and purposes, (5) the ability to exercise freedom within the context of societal constraints, and (6) the focus on prevention and the development of a proactive approach in dealing with problems. Adler’s holistic per-spective is an articulate expression of what Pedersen calls a “culture-centered” or multicultural approach to counseling. Carlson and Englar-Carlson (2008) maintain that Adlerian theory is well suited to counseling diverse populations and doing so-cial justice work. They assert: “Perhaps Adler’s greatest contribution is that he de-veloped a theory that recognizes and stresses the effects of social class, racism, sex, and gender on the behavior of individuals. His ideas, therefore, are well received by those living in today’s global society” (p. 134).

Although the Adlerian approach is called Individual Psychology, its focus is on the person in a social context. Thus clients are encouraged to defi ne themselves within their social environments. Adlerians allow broad concepts of age, ethnicity, lifestyle, sexual/affectional orientations, and gender differences to emerge in ther-apy. The therapeutic process is grounded within a client’s culture and worldview rather than attempting to fi t clients into preconceived models.

In their analysis of the various theoretical approaches to counseling, Arciniega and Newlon (2003) state that Adlerian theory holds a great deal of promise for addressing diversity issues. They note a number of characteristics of Adlerian the-ory that are congruent with the values of many racial, cultural, and ethnic groups, including the emphasis on understanding the individual in a familial and socio-cultural context; the role of social interest and contributing to others; and the focus on belonging and the collective spirit. Cultures that stress the welfare of the social group and emphasize the role of the family will fi nd the basic assumptions of Adle-rian psychology to be consistent with their values.

Adlerian therapists tend to focus on cooperation and socially oriented values as opposed to competitive and individualistic values (Carlson & Carlson, 2000).

Native American clients, for example, tend to value cooperation over competition.

One such client told a story about a group of boys who were in a race. When one boy got ahead of the others, he would slow down and allow the others to catch up, and they all made it to the fi nish line at the same time. Although the coach tried to explain that the point of the race was for an individual to fi nish fi rst, these boys were socialized to work together cooperatively as a group. Adlerian therapy is easily adaptable to cultural values that emphasize community.

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Not only is Adlerian theory congruent with the values of people from diverse cultural groups, but the approach offers fl exibility in applying a range of cognitive and action-oriented techniques to helping clients explore their practical problems in a cultural context. Adlerian practitioners are not wedded to any particular set of procedures. Instead, they are conscious of the value of fi tting their techniques to each client’s situation. Although they utilize a diverse range of methods, most of them do conduct a lifestyle assessment. This assessment is heavily focused on the structure and dynamics within the client’s family. Because of their cultural background, many clients have been conditioned to respect their family heritage and to appreciate the impact of their family on their own personal development. It is essential that counselors be sensitive to the confl icting feelings and struggles of their clients. If counselors demonstrate an understanding of these cultural values, it is likely that these clients will be receptive to an exploration of their lifestyle.

Such an exploration will involve a detailed discussion of their own place within their family.

It should be noted that Adlerians investigate culture in much the same way that they approach birth order and family atmosphere. Culture is a vantage point from which life is experienced and interpreted; it is also a background of values, history, convictions, beliefs, customs, and expectations that must be addressed by the individual. Culture provides a way of grasping the subjective and experien-tial perspective of an individual. Although culture infl uences each person, it is expressed within each individual differently, according to the perception, evalua-tion, and interpretation of culture that the person holds. Contemporary Adlerians appreciate the role of spirituality and religion in the lives of clients because these factors are manifestations of social interest and responsibility to others (Carlson &

Englar-Carlson, 2008).

Adler was one of the fi rst psychologists at the turn of the century to advocate equality for women. He recognized that men and women were different in many ways, but he felt that the two genders were deserving of equal value and respect.

This respect and appreciation for difference extends to culture as well as gender.

Adlerians fi nd in different cultures opportunities for viewing the self, others, and the world in multidimensional ways.

Shortcomings From a Diversity Perspective

As is true of most Western models, the Adlerian approach tends to focus on the self as the locus of change and responsibility. Because other cultures have differ-ent conceptions, this primary emphasis on changing the autonomous self may be problematic for many clients. Assumptions about the Western nuclear family are built into the Adlerian concepts of birth order and family constellation. For people brought up in extended family contexts, some of these ideas may be less relevant or at least may need to be reconfi gured.

Adlerian theory has some potential drawbacks for clients from those cultures who are not interested in exploring past childhood experiences, early memories, family experiences, and dreams. This approach also has limited effectiveness with clients who do not understand the purpose of exploring the details of a lifestyle analysis when dealing with life’s current problems (Arciniega & Newlon, 2003).

In addition, the culture of some clients may contribute to their viewing the coun-selor as the “expert” and expecting that the councoun-selor will provide them with solu-tions to their problems. For these clients, the role of the Adlerian therapist may pose problems because Adlerian therapists are not experts in solving other people’s problems. Instead, they view it as their function to collaboratively teach people alternative methods of coping with life concerns.

Many clients who have pressing problems are likely to be hesitant to discuss areas of their lives that they may not see as connected to the struggles that bring them into therapy. Individuals may believe that it is inappropriate to reveal family information. On this point Carlson and Carlson (2000) suggest that a therapist’s sensitivity and understanding of a client’s culturally constructed beliefs about dis-closing family information are critical. If the therapist is able to demonstrate an understanding of a client’s cultural values, it is likely that this person will be more open to the assessment and treatment process.

The basic aims of an Adlerian thera-pist working with Stan are fourfold and correspond to the four stages of counseling: (1) establishing and maintain-ing a good workmaintain-ing relationship with Stan, (2) exploring Stan’s dynamics, (3) encouraging Stan to develop insight and understanding, and (4) helping Stan see new alternatives and make new choices.

To develop mutual trust and respect, I pay close attention to Stan’s subjective experience and attempt to get a sense of how he has reacted to the turning points in his life. During the initial session, Stan reacts to me as the expert who has the answers. He is convinced that when he makes decisions he generally ends up regretting the results. Stan approaches me out of desperation. Because I view counseling as a relationship between equals, I initially focus on his feeling of being unequal to most other people. A good place to begin is exploring his feelings of inferiority, which he says he feels in most situations. The goals of counseling are developed mutually, and I avoid deciding for Stan what his goals should be. I also resist giving Stan the simple formula he is requesting.

I prepare a lifestyle assessment based on a questionnaire that taps information about Stan’s

early years, especially his experiences in his family. (See the Student Manual for Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy for a complete description of this lifestyle assessment form as it is applied to Stan.) This assessment includes a determination of whether he poses a danger to himself because Stan did mention suicidal ideation. During the assessment phase, which might take a few sessions, I explore with Stan his social relationships, his relationships with members of his family, his work responsi-bilities, his role as a man, and his feelings about himself. I place considerable emphasis on Stan’s goals in life and his priorities. I do not pay a great deal of attention to his past, except to show him the consistency between his past and present as he moves toward the future.

As an Adlerian counselor, I place value on exploring early recollections as a source of understanding his goals, motivations, and values. I ask Stan to report his earliest memories. He replies as follows:

I was about 6. I went to school, and I was scared of the other kids and the teacher. When I came home, I cried and told my mother I didn’t want to go back to school. She yelled at me and called me a baby. After that I felt horrible and even more scared.