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American Psychoanalytic Association

309 East 49th Street, New York, NY 10017-1601 Telephone: (212) 752-0450

Fax: (212) 593–0571 Website: www.apsa.org

References and Suggested Readings

#PPLTBOEBSUJDMFTNBSLFEXJUIBOBTUFSJTLBSFTVHHFTUFEGPSGVSUIFSTUVEZ

*Ainslie, R. (2007). Psychoanalytic psycho-therapy. In A. B. Rochlen (Ed.), Applying coun-seling theories: An online case-based approach (pp. 5–20). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Atkinson, D. R., Thompson, C. E., & Grant, S. K. (1993). A three-dimensional model for counseling racial/ethnic minorities. The Coun-seling Psychologist, 2(2), 257–277.

Clarkin, J., Yeomans, F., & Kernberg, O.

(2006). Psychotherapy for borderline personality:

Focusing on object relations. Washington DC:

American Psychiatric Press.

Corey, G. (2012). Theory and practice of group counseling (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/

Cole, Cengage Learning.

*Corey, G. (2013). Case approach to counseling and psychotherapy (8th ed.). Belmont, CA:

Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

*Curtis, R. C., & Hirsch, I. (2011). Relational psychoanalytic psychotherapy. In S. B. Messer

& A. S. Gurman, (Eds.), Essential psychothera-pies: Theory and practice (3rd ed., pp. 72–104).

New York: Guilford Press.

*Elliot, A. (1994). Psychoanalytic theory: An introduction. Oxford UK & Cambridge USA:

Blackwell.

Enns, C. Z. (1993). Twenty years of feminist counseling and therapy: From naming biases to implementing multifaceted practice. The Counseling Psychologist, 21(1), 3–87.

*Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.

Freud, S. (1949). An outline of psychoanalysis.

New York: Norton.

*Freud, S. (1955). The interpretation of dreams.

London: Hogarth Press.

*Gabbard, G. (2005). Psychodynamic psychiatry in clinical practice (4th ed.). Washington, DC:

American Psychiatric Press.

*Gelso, C. J., & Hayes, J. A. (2002). The man-agement of countertransference.

In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relation-ships that work (pp. 267–283). New York:

Oxford University Press.

*Harris, A. S. (1996). Living with paradox: An introduction to Jungian psychology. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Hayes, J. A., (2004). Therapist know thyself:

Recent research on countertransference. Psy-chotherapy Bulletin, 39(4), 6– 12.

Hayes, J. A., Gelso, C. J., & Hummel, A. M.

(2011). Management of countertransference.

In J.C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relation-ships that work: Evidence-based responsiveness (2nd ed., pp. 239–258). New York: Oxford University Press.

*Hedges, L. E. (1983). Listening perspectives in psychotherapy. New York: Aronson.

*Jung, C. G. (1961). Memories, dreams, reflec-tions. New York: Vintage.

Kernberg, O. F. (1975). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. New York: Aronson.

Kernberg, O. F. (1976). Object-relations theory and clinical psychoanalysis. New York: Aronson.

Kernberg, O. F. (1997). Convergences and divergences in contemporary psychoanalytic technique and psychoanalytic psychotherapy.

In J. K. Zeig (Ed.), The evolution of psychothera-py: The third conference (pp. 3–22). New York:

Brunner/Mazel.

Kernberg, O. F., Yeomans, F. E., Clarkin, J. F.,

& Levy, K. N. (2008). Transference focused psychotherapy: Overview and update. Interna-tional Journal of Psychoanalysis, 89, 601–620.

Klein, M. (1975). The psychoanalysis of children.

New York: Dell.

Kohut, H. (1971). The analysis of self.

New York: International Universities Press.

Kohut, H. (1977). Restoration of the self.

New York: International Universities Press.

Kohut, H. (1984). How does psychoanalysis cure? Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY

*Levenson, H. (2007). Time-limited dynamic psychotherapy. In A. B. Rochlen (Ed.), Apply-ing counselApply-ing theories: An online case-based approach (pp. 75–90). Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Levenson, H. (2010). Brief dynamic therapy.

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Linehan, M. M. (1993a). Cognitive-behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder.

New York: Guilford Press.

Linehan, M. M. (1993b). Skills training manual for treating borderline personality disorder.

New York: Guilford Press.

*Luborsky, E. B., O’Reilly-Landry, M., & Arlow, J. A. (2011). Psychoanalysis. In R. J. Corsini &

D. Wedding (Eds.), Current psychotherapies (9th ed., pp. 15–66). Belmont, CA: Brooks/

Cole, Cengage Learning.

Mahler, M. S. (1968). On human symbiosis or the vicissitudes of individuation. New York: Inter-national Universities Press.

Masterson, J. F. (1976). Psychotherapy of the borderline adult: A developmental approach.

New York: Brunner/Mazel.

Messer, S. B., & Gurman, A. S. (2011). Essential psychotherapies: Theory and practice (3rd ed.).

New York: Guilford Press.

Messer, S. B., & Warren, C. S. (2001). Brief psychodynamic therapy. In R. J. Corsini (Ed.), Handbook of innovative therapies (2nd ed., pp. 67–85). New York: Wiley.

Mitchell, S. A. (1988). Relational concepts in psychoanalysis: An integration. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

*Mitchell, S. A. (2000). Relationality: From attachment to intersubjectivity. Hillsdale, NJ:

The Analytic Press.

Mitchell, S. A., & Black, M. J. (1995). Freud and beyond: A history of modern psychoanalytic thought. New York: Basic Books.

Prochaska, J. O., & Norcross, J. C. (2010).

Systems of psychotherapy: A transtheoretical analysis (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Reik, T. (1948). Listening with the third ear.

New York: Pyramid.

*Rutan, J. S., Stone, W. N., & Shay, J. J. (2007).

Psychodynamic group psychotherapy (4th ed.).

New York: Guilford Press.

*Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. E. (2009). Theories of personality (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.

Smith, L. (2005). Psychotherapy, classism, and the poor. American Psychologist, 60(7), 687–696.

*St. Clair, M. (with Wigren, J.). (2004). Object relations and self psychology: An introduction (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Stern, D. N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. New York: Basic Books.

Strupp, H. H. (1992). The future of psychody-namic psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 29(l), 21–27.

Wolitzsky, D. L. (2011a). Contemporary Freudian psychoanalytic psychotherapy. In S. B. Messer & A. S. Gurman (Eds.), Essential psychotherapies: Theory and practice (3rd ed., pp. 33–71). New York: Guilford Press.

Wolitzsky, D. L. (2011b). Psychoanalytic theories in psychotherapy. In J. C. Norcross, G. R. Vandenbos, & D. K. Freedheim (Eds.), History of psychotherapy (2nd ed., pp. 65–100).

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Yalom, I. D. (2003). The gift of therapy: An open letter to a new generation of therapists and their patients. New York: HarperCollins (Perennial).

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101

i n t r o d u c t i o n k e y c o n c e p t s

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Adlerian Therapy

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102

CHAPTER FIVE

ALFRED ADLER (1870–

1937) grew up in a Vienna family of six boys and two girls. His younger brother died at a very young age in the bed next to Alfred.

Adler’s early childhood was not a happy time. He was sickly and very much aware of death. At age 4 he almost died of pneumonia.

He heard the doctor tell his father that “Alfred is lost.” Adler associated this time with his decision to become a physician. Because he was ill so much during the first few years of his life, Adler was pampered by his mother. He developed a trusting relationship with his father, but did not feel very close to his mother. He was extremely jealous of his older brother, Sigmund, which led to a strained relationship between the two during childhood and adolescence. When we consider Adler’s strained relationship with Sigmund Freud, one cannot help but suspect that patterns from his early family constellation were repeated in this relationship with Freud.

Adler’s early childhood experiences had an impact on the formation of his theory. Adler is an example of a person who shaped his own life as opposed to having it determined by fate. Adler was a poor student. His teacher advised his father to prepare Adler to be a shoemaker, but not much else. With determined effort Adler eventually rose to the top of his class. He went on to study medi-cine at the University of Vienna, entering private practice as an ophthalmologist, and then shifting to general medicine. He eventually specialized in

neu-rology and psychiatry, and he had a keen interest in incurable childhood diseases.

Adler had a passionate concern for the com-mon person and was outspoken about child-rearing practices, school reforms, and prejudices that resulted in conflict. He spoke and wrote in simple, nontechnical language so that the general popula-tion could understand and apply the principles of his approach in a practical way, which helped people meet the challenges of daily life. Adler’s (1927/1959) Understanding Human Nature was the first major psychology book to sell hundreds of thousands of copies in the United States. After serving in World War I as a medical officer, Adler created 32 child guidance clinics in the Vienna public schools and began training teachers, social workers, physicians, and other professionals. He pioneered the practice of teaching profession-als through live demonstrations with parents and children before large audiences, now called “open-forum” family counseling. The clinics he founded grew in number and in popularity, and he was inde-fatigable in lecturing and demonstrating his work.

Although Adler had an overcrowded work schedule most of his professional life, he still took some time to sing, enjoy music, and be with friends. In the mid-1920s he began lecturing in the United States, and he later made frequent visits and tours. He ignored the warning of his friends to slow down, and on May 28, 1937, while taking a walk before a scheduled lecture in Aberdeen, Scotland, Adler collapsed and died of heart failure.

If you have an interest in learning more about Adler’s life, see Edward Hoffman’s (1996) excellent biography, The Drive for Self.

Alfred Adler

i n t r o d u c t i o n

Along with Freud and Jung, Alfred Adler was a major contributor to the initial development of the psychodynamic approach to therapy. After 8 to 10 years of col-laboration, Freud and Adler parted company, with Freud taking the position that Adler was a heretic who had deserted him. Adler resigned as president of the Vien-na PsychoaVien-nalytic Society in 1911 and founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912. Freud then asserted that it was not possible to support Adlerian concepts and still remain in good standing as a psychoanalyst.

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103

ADLERIAN THERAPY

Later, a number of other psychoanalysts deviated from Freud’s orthodox position (see Chapter 4). These Freudian revisionists—including Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan—agreed that relational, social, and cul-tural factors were of great signiﬁ cance in shaping personality. Even though these three therapists are typically called neo-Freudians, it would be more appropri-ate, as Heinz Ansbacher (1979) has suggested, to refer to them as neo-Adlerians because they moved away from Freud’s biological and deterministic point of view and toward Adler’s social-psychological and teleological (or goal-oriented) view of human nature.

Adler stresses the unity of personality, contending that people can only be understood as integrated and complete beings. This view also espouses the pur-poseful nature of behavior, emphasizing that where we have come from is not as important as where we are striving to go. Adler saw humans as both the creators and the creations of their own lives; that is, people develop a unique style of liv-ing that is both a movement toward and an expression of their selected goals. In this sense, we create ourselves rather than merely being shaped by our childhood experiences.

After Adler’s death in 1937, Rudolf Dreikurs was the most signiﬁ cant ﬁ gure in bringing Adlerian psychology to the United States, especially as its principles applied to education, individual and group therapy, and family counseling.

Dreikurs is credited with giving impetus to the idea of child guidance centers and to training professionals to work with a wide range of clients.

See the DVD program for Chapter 5, DVD for Theory and Practice of Coun-seling and Psychotherapy: The Case of Stan and Lecturettes. I suggest that you view the brief lecture for each chapter prior to reading the chapter.

k e y c o n c e p t s

View of Human Nature

Adler abandoned Freud’s basic theories because he believed Freud was exces-sively narrow in his emphasis on biological and instinctual determination. Adler believed that the individual begins to form an approach to life somewhere in the ﬁ rst 6 years of living. He focused on the person’s past as perceived in the present and how an individual’s interpretation of early events continued to inﬂ uence that person’s present behavior. According to Adler, humans are motivated primarily by social relatedness rather than by sexual urges; behavior is purposeful and goal-directed; and consciousness, more than unconsciousness, is the focus of therapy.

Adler stressed choice and responsibility, meaning in life, and the striving for suc-cess, completion, and perfection. Adler and Freud created very different theories, even though both men grew up in the same city in the same era and were educated as physicians at the same university. Their individual and distinct childhood experiences, their personal struggles, and the populations with whom they worked were key factors in the development of their particular views of human nature (Schultz & Schultz, 2009).

104

CHAPTER FIVE

Adler’s theory starts with a consideration of inferiority feelings, which he saw as a normal condition of all people and as a source of all human striving. Rather than being considered a sign of weakness or abnormality, inferiority feelings can be the wellspring of creativity. They motivate us to strive for mastery, success (superiority), and completion. We are driven to overcome our sense of inferiority and to strive for increasingly higher levels of development (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956/1964). Indeed, at around 6 years of age our ﬁ ctional vision of ourselves as perfect or complete begins to form into a life goal. The life goal uniﬁ es the person-ality and becomes the source of human motivation; every striving and every effort to overcome inferiority is now in line with this goal.

From the Adlerian perspective, human behavior is not determined solely by heredity and environment. Instead, we have the capacity to interpret, inﬂ uence, and create events. Adler asserted that genetics and heredity are not as important as what we choose to do with the abilities and limitations we possess. Although Adlerians reject a deterministic stance, they do not go to the other extreme and maintain that individuals can become whatever they want to be. Adlerians recog-nize that biological and environmental conditions limit our capacity to choose and to create.

Adlerians put the focus on reeducating individuals and reshaping society.

Adler was the forerunner of a subjective approach to psychology that focuses on internal determinants of behavior such as values, beliefs, attitudes, goals, interests, and the individual perception of reality. He was a pioneer of an approach that is holistic, social, goal oriented, systemic, and humanistic. Adler also was the ﬁ rst systemic therapist: he maintained that it is essential to understand people within the systems in which they live.

Dalam dokumen Theory and Practice of Counseling (Halaman 116-124)

Limitations and Criticisms of the Psychoanalytic Approach

w h e r e t o g o f r o m h e r e

Recommended Supplementary Readings

References and Suggested Readings

i n t r o d u c t i o n k e y c o n c e p t s

t h e t h e r a p e u t i c p r o c e s s

a p p l i c at i o n : t h e r a p e u t i c t e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s

a l d e r i a n t h e r a p y f r o m a m u lt i c u lt u r a l p e r s p e c t i v e

a d l e r i a n t h e r a p y a p p l i e d t o t h e c a s e o f s ta n

s u m m a ry a n d e va l u at i o n

w h e r e t o g o f r o m h e r e

c h a p t e r 5

Adlerian Therapy

Coauthored by Gerald Corey and James Robert Bitter

a p p l i c at i o n : t e c h n i q u e s

Alfred Adler

i n t r o d u c t i o n

k e y c o n c e p t s

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