It is important to note that, in this case, the governance systems and develop-ment processes used to date have not been based on an explicit recognition of the different values of the various stakeholders. The outcomes of the participant observation revealed that when local guides and skippers conducted tourist interactions with the whales without the presence of the operation’s owner or manager on board, there was an inclination to disregard the industry regulations and the well-being of the whales. One of the possible reasons for this disregard could be due to differences in interpretation of the ‘regulations’, particularly involving the situation of the successive number of vessels interacting with the same mother and calf and the limits to interaction time. However, one experi-enced skipper’s response to a query regarding the lack of commitment to the
‘rest’ time required for the mother and calf was a shrug of the shoulders and com-ment that ‘everyone breaks the rules’. This response and disregard for the regula-tions in the author’s presence (whose role was made known as per ethical requirements) was somewhat surprising. Previous experience with tourism oper-ators and guides is that observer presence generally inspires adherence to regula-tions with the motivation ‘to be seen doing it right’. This response and behaviour not only demonstrated a gap in values related to the whales’ welfare, but also a disregard, or at least a lack of understanding or awareness, of the international status of their guiding role and expertise in relation to a global perspective of this type of tourism and its conduct, and subsequently the reputation of the opera-tion and Vava’u tourism. These local skippers expressed the opinion that ‘this is Tonga’, with little need to consider international practices or ideas; nor the tour-ists, it seemed, many of whom sought this particular experience explicitly, along with numerous other whale and dolphin tourism experiences around the world.
The expressed motivation of these guides and skippers was to get the tourists into the water for their ‘swim’ with the whales, no matter what the quality of experience, the regulations or the whales’ well-being. This even meant launching participants into the water in the path of oncoming, fast-moving whales to have the briefest observation of whales moving rapidly past them, which is not the experience promoted by the industry nor supported by the industry guidelines
Controversial Ecotourism and Stakeholder Roles in Governance 111
or regulations. There was a general lack of understanding of the international interest, and specifi cally the interest of the SPREP, in the conduct of these opera-tions. It was also found that some of the owner/managers of these operations were also not aware of the SPREP’s interest and infl uence in the conduct of this tourism activity in the South Pacifi c region, nor the propositions of other Pacifi c nations to initiate this type of whale tourism industry.
It is signifi cant that this conduct was not observed on the vessels where the owner/manager was on board managing the day’s operations and mentoring the local guides. The guides’ perspectives of their role, their motivations and interpre-tive behaviours were also markedly different in these two situations. Interviews with the guides on board vessels where the owner/managers were not present revealed little or no local or global perspective regarding this population of whales, little or no knowledge or interest in local whale heritage and limited personal or community-linked values or goals related to their guiding role. It was indicated to the researcher in these cases that it was a fun job which paid some money for the season. It is pertinent to note here that the greatest income for the Vava’u local population comes from overseas remittance. Although tourism is the second-largest source of hard currency earnings following remittances and is considered to be the most important growth industry (Orams, 2004; and Vava’u Manager of the Tonga Visitor’s Bureau, 2008, personal communication), employment in such did not appear to link signifi cantly with the values of these employees with respect to their personal development, aspirations, beliefs or community welfare. For example, one guide was intent to travel and work in other parts of the world, but had made no connection to his guiding experience when asked by the researcher how he intended to facilitate such. The researcher’s observation that she had, in fact, experienced the world as a professional guide was responded to with aston-ishment. He had no idea that he could use his guiding experience and training to achieve other employment or travel opportunities. It would seem that no such connections between this employee’s personal values or goals and his employ-ment in the industry had been encouraged, at least not within his judgeemploy-ment, and thus with such a limited appreciation of his guiding role there was limited inclina-tion to adhere to a set of regulainclina-tions that appeared largely to serve an expatriate population. The presidents of the local tourism and whale watch associations had noted the disinclination of local industry employees to regard the regulations, but were at a loss as to how to facilitate a greater adherence. This situation appeared to be particularly confounding, since all local guides, skippers and industry work-ers were involved in the same 2-week whale tourism training programme con-ducted by IFAW. A lack of ‘passion’ regarding their roles, the whales and the tourists was discussed by organization representatives. This was perhaps demon-strated by the unmentored guides’ lack of awareness of the international perspec-tive with regard to the attraction of the Vava’u whale swim industry, despite their training and interaction with the tourists.
As noted, the situation was quite different in operations where the expatriate owner/manager was present on board and provided daily management, leader-ship and mentorleader-ship. The well-being of the whales was considered a priority (along with that of the tourist participants), with the guides being aware of the potential negative impacts on the sustainability of the whale population, and
112 K. Walker and G. Moscardo
their industry, if the regulations were ignored. These ‘mentored’ guides also spoke of the personal development opportunities and family-oriented benefi ts of their employment, and expressed values related to their role in supporting com-munity sustainability and whale conservation and awareness. This was facili-tated through not only provision of information regarding the whales, but also discussion of other aspects of Vava’u and its culture. An example of development within the industry of a local guide who had received mentoring was the one Tongan national at the time who was an owner/operator. This person had begun in the industry as a guide, working initially with the fi rst expatriate owner/opera-tor to conduct whale watching and swimming in Vava’u. This example is indica-tive of the Tonga Visitor’s Bureau (TVB) representaindica-tive’s identifi cation of their perceived value of the guide’s role and goals regarding the industry. These were related particularly to local representation in an international arena, contribution to local tourism development and management, and community sustainability.
This representative saw the community capacity benefi t with regard to the devel-opment of the guides’ skills and capabilities within the industry, their subsequent representation of the local community with respect to industry direction and leadership and application to work in other types of tourism operations and businesses. Importantly, they were considered representatives of the Vava’u community. This was perceived largely through the appreciation and develop-ment of their communication, presentation and managedevelop-ment skills with regard to business operations and foreigners, and the understanding, interpretation and communication of cultural values.
It is particularly pertinent that the industry also provides career opportuni-ties for young Vava’u females through their experience as guides, skippers, shop managers and operational assistants. At the time of this project, there was only one female working on the water as a guide, but there were others who were working in other operational roles in the industry and who had received the guide training. They were valued as good communicators in the industry in reference to tourists and looked forward to their continuing prospects in the industry. The TVB representative felt that tourism in particular offered women employment opportunities due to their communicative skills and aptitude for speaking English. Of the 200 plus local people employed in tourism in Vava’u at the time, the majority were female (Tonga Visitors Bureau, Vava’u, 2008, personal communication). The female guide expressed pride in her perceived role in the community. Her employment allowed her to look after her mother and facilitated a position of relative autonomy and self-determination, which she felt was limited for women who chose to stay in Vava’u, as opposed to mov-ing to the Tongan capital or elsewhere, by providmov-ing long-term career prospects.
It also provided her with an opportunity to experience ‘the sea’, which was usu-ally restricted to the activity of fi shing, conducted primarily by the men of the community. Signifi cantly, this guide supported the observations of other study participants that her family and the community generally had little or no com-prehension why foreigners would visit Vava’u to see the whales. Accordingly, the local community had problems perceiving her role in the industry, and those of other local employees, or understanding what she actually did in the industry and how, therefore, the industry related or contributed to the local community’s
Controversial Ecotourism and Stakeholder Roles in Governance 113
welfare or long-term sustainability. These sentiments were echoed by the representatives of the local NGOs (IFAW and VTA) and industry members who were attempting to coordinate an annual ‘whale awareness’ week for the local community. This situation was reinforced indisputably when the community interview participants involved in the local tourist accommodation sector asked the researcher: ‘why do tourists come to see the whales?’. It is one of these local participants who, since the running of this study, has applied successfully for his own whale swim operation permit.