Alfalfa

WORLD CROPS BOOKS Edited by

Professor Nicholas Polunin

ALFALFA

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(One-quarter natural size.)

WORLD CROPS BOOKS Edited by

PROFESSOR NICHOLAS POLUNIN

ALFALFA

Botany, Cultivation, and Utilization By

J. L. BOLTON

B.S.A., M.Sc. {Alberta), Ph.D. {Minnesota) Fellow of the Agricultural Institute of Canada Head, Crops Section, Canada Agricultural Research Station,

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada

LONDON

LEONARD HILL [BOOKS] LIMITED INTERSCIENCE PUBLISHERS, INC.

NEW YORK

1962

Leonard Hill [Books] Ltd.

Shepherds Bush Road, London, W.6.

NEW YORK Interscience Publishers Inc.

440 Park Avenue South, New York 16

FIRST PUBLISHED IN GREAT BRITAIN 1 9 6 3

© Copyright J. L. Bolton, 1962

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

ABERDEEN

CONTENTS

PAGE

LIST OF PLATES viii

LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT xi

LIST OF TABLES xii PREFACE xiv

CHAPTER

I ORIGIN AND HISTORY i

Vernacular names—Early spreading—Progress in the New World—Introduction to South Africa and Australasia.

II DISTRIBUTION AND PRODUCTION 9

Europe: Austria, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,Yugoslavia

—Union of Soviet Socialist Republics—North and Central America: Canada, Guatemala, Mexico, United States of America

—South America: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay—Asia: India, Israel, Pakistan, Turkey—Africa:

Algeria, Republic of South Africa—Oceania: Australia, New Zealand.

III DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES 59

Generic relationships—Artificial key to species of Medicago—

Descriptions of the species, with notes on their agronomic values.

IV MORPHOLOGY AND SEED SETTING 97

External morphology: root system, stems and leaves, inflorescence and flower, fruit and seed—Internal morphology: micro- sporogenesis, macrosporogenesis, pollination and fertilization, fertility relationships—Seed setting: tripping, insect pollinators, honey-bees, wild bees.

V TYPES AND VARIETIES 115

Variety classification—Regional ecotypes: central Asia; Trans- Caucasia; Europe, western Siberia, and eastern Siberia; North America; South America; Tripolitania; Mediterranean; Australia;

Mesopotamia; India; Asia Minor; Yemen—Countries and their varieties: Algeria, Arabia, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Canada, Chile, China, Czechoslovakia, Ecuador, Egypt, France, Germany, Guatemala, Hungary, India, Iran, Italy, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Poland, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia and Libya, Turkey, Republic of South Africa, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United States of America, Yugoslavia.

v

CHAPTER PAGE VI CYTOGENETICS AND BREEDING H5

Cytogenetics—Breeding: objectives, high temperature, low temperatures, icing, soil moisture, soil reaction, forage yield, seed yield, growth-habit, seed dormancy, chemical composition, resistance to insects, disease resistance—Methods of selection and breeding: natural selection, mass selection, progeny testing, synthesis, recurrent selection, back-cross breeding, hybrid com- binations—Special techniques: vegetative propagation, isolation, yield determination, greenhouse care, selling and crossing, pollen germination, chromosome doubling, chromosome stains.

V I I PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 1 8 3

Disease resistance: classification of disease resistance, im- munity, resistance and susceptibility—The mechanism of true resistance: morphology of the host, physiological factors, chemical substances—Insect resistance and its classification: preference and non-preference, tolerance, antibiosis—Soil reaction: soil acidity, soil alkalinity—Soil salinity—Moisture requirements—

Germination: after-ripening, 'hard' seeds.

V I I I ESTABLISHMENT AND CARE OF STANDS 2 0 1

Choice of land and location: soil, drainage, crust formation, fertilizers, soil reaction, water supply, field history, seed pro- duction—Choice of seed and variety: dormancy, seed quality, weed seeds, suitability—Seed treatment: scarification, fungicides, inoculation—Cultural and seeding practices: the seed bed, com- panion crops, time of seeding, rate of seeding, depth of seeding, method of seeding, row spacing—Care of the new stand

—Care of established stands: burning, cultivation, fertilization, re-seeding—Irrigating alfalfa: rate and frequency of application of water, methods of irrigation.

IX PLANT NUTRIENTS, CHEMICAL COMPOSITION, AND NITROGEN

FIXATION 2 1 9

Non-mineral elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen—

Mineral elements: phosphorus, calcium, potassium, sulphur, magnesium, boron, molybdenum, iron, manganese, aluminium, copper, zinc, chlorine, cobalt—Organic amendments: barnyard manure, green-manure—Chemical composition—Nitrogen fixation.

X WEEDS 2 4 . 2

Losses from weeds—direct effects, indirect effects—Adapt- ations and characteristics: soil and climatic relationships, life- history,, dissemination of seed, germination—Methods of control: special methods for minor infestations, cultural methods, chemical methods, soil sterilants, selective herbicides—Biological Control.

XI INJURIOUS INSECTS AND RODENTS 2 . 5 7

Injurious insects—Control methods: cultural treatments, bio- logical control, chemical control (inorganic compounds, natural

vi

294

321

CHAPTER PAGE

XI insecticides, synthetic insecticides)—Common insect pests of (cont.) alfalfa: red-legged earth mite, two-spotted spider-mite, alfalfa flea, grasshoppers, mormon cricket, thrips, plant bugs, garden fleahopper, stink-bugs, pea aphid, spotted alfalfa aphid, potato leaf- hopper, meadow spittlebug, cutworms, alfalfa looper, bollworms, armyworms, alfalfa stem-borer, alfalfa caterpillar, webworms, alfalfa snout-beetle, Egyptian alfalfa weevil, alfalfa weevil, clover root curculio, wireworms, clover stem-borer, clover seed chalcid, red harvester-ant, the gall midges—Rodents: description, habits, burrows, food sources, damage, natural enemies, artificial controls.

XII DISEASES OF ALFALFA

Fungicides—Description of diseases: fungal diseases, fungi attacking the root and crown, fungi attacking leaf, stem, and floral parts—Bacterial diseases — Virus diseases — Nematode diseases—Miscellaneous diseases.

XIII HARVESTING AND STORAGE

Root reserves—Time and frequency of cutting—Curing and storing the crop: hay, silage, soilage—Pasture management—

Seed production: harvesting methods, seed cleaning, seed storage—Pedigreed seed: general seed certification standards of I.C.I.A., alfalfa seed certification standards of I.C.I.A., seed standards of O.E.E.C., seed standards in representative countries:

Canada, France, United States.

XIV CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND FEEDING . . . .

Composition: proximate analysis, minerals, vitamins, amino-acids energy relationships, miscellaneous constituents—Feeding alfalfa to livestock: beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, horses and mules swine, poultry—Bloat in ruminants: classification, causes of bloat, prevention of bloat, treatment of bloat.

XV INDUSTRIAL USES OF ALFALFA

Dehydrated products: types of equipment, operation of driers special processing, storage, costs of production and market value—Extracted products: proteins, vitamins, pigments, other compounds—Human consumption—Honey production.

XVI PROSPECTS FOR RESEARCH AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS . . 392

Prospects for research: area and distribution, cytogenetics and taxonomy, breeding, biological and chemical controls, pollination, plant nutrition, animal nutrition, harvesting and thrashing, in- dustrial products—Research institutions: Europe, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, North and Central America, South America, Africa, Asia, Oceania.

352

378

GLOSSARY

CONVERSION FACTORS . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY

SUBJECT INDEX AUTHOR INDEX

. 402 . 411

• 413

• 437 . 468

Vll

Common alfalfa, Medkago sativa Frontispiece Facing page

i

96 96-7 97-7

112-13 112-13 112-13 112-13 112-13 13

Yellow-flowered alfalfa, Medkago falcata Pods and seeds of several species of Medkago

A creeping-rooted alfalfa . . . Individual plant variation in seed-setting in alfalfa

Effects of tripping in alfalfa 96-7 Alfalfa flower being tripped by a leaf-cutter bee (Megachile sp.) 96-7

Honey bees collecting nectar from an alfalfa flower . . 97 F o u r species of bumble bees that pollinate alfalfa in the inter-

mountain region of the western United States . . . 1 1 2 Early nest of a bumble bee, Bornbus morrisoni, showing honey-pot

and wad of pollen containing first brood

Fully developed nest of a bumble bee, Bornbus morrisoni Adult alkali bee, Nomia melanderi, starting nest excavation Portion of alkali bee nesting-site, showing entrances to nests Horizontal section, at cell level, of nest of an alkali bee . Bored holes, in the wall of a log house, which were accepted as nesting sites by Megachile spp. . . 112 Leaves of Amelanchier, Epilobium, zn&Rosa, notched by Megachile

t o provide nesting material . . . 112-13 Fire-killed stumps and logs of Populus and Picea crowd an ideal

nesting habitat for certain species of Megachile . . . 113 Roots systems of Ladak alfalfa and of an Fx hybrid from Ladakx

Siberian 128 Somatic chromsomes in Medkago . . . . 1 2 9

Cytology of haploid plant of alfalfa . . . . - 1 4 4

Meiosis in a haploid alfalfa plant 145

Winter killing in alfalfa 160 Varietal difference in alfalfa in recovery after cutting . . 1 6 0

Type of wooden flat in which grasses and alfalfa may be grown in

t h e greenhouse . . . 160-1

Effects of sodium chloride solutions on the germination and

growth of alfalfa seedlings 160-1 Row progenies from intercrosses between creeping-rooted parents 160-1

Effects from inoculating a portion of a plot of Grimm alfalfa with

winter crown-rot the previous autumn . . . . 160-1 Scale of infection from spring blackstem, Ascochyta imperfecta . 161

Alfalfa plants resistant and susceptible to root-knot nematodes . 176 Over-seeding reserve nursery with a short-growing grass . 176-7 Space-isolation plot for production of Syn. 2 seed . . 176-7

LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Plastic-screen cage used for isolated increase of breeding material 176-7 A series of small, wire-screen cages may be used to produce seed

of Fj hybrids 176-7 Alfalfa stand almost completely killed after being submerged for

three weeks in early spring 177 Irrigation water being applied immediately after seeding to

alfalfa 177 Specially-equipped trucks may be used to spread lime on land

being prepared for alfalfa . . . . . . . 192 Effects of irrigation water on growth of alfalfa. . . . 1 9 2 Alfalfa seed field located near natural woodland suitable for

nesting sites of wild bees 193 Land newly broken and ready to prepare for seeding to alfalfa for

seed production . . . 193 Companion crops retard the establishment of alfalfa under dry-

conditions 208 The cultipacker may be used to pack the soil either before or after

seeding alfalfa . . . . . . . . . 208

Alfalfa for seed production 209 A heavy accumulation of debris burned off an alfalfa field . 209

The spring-tooth harrow may be used to prepare land for seeding,

or to cultivate older stands located on sandy soils . . . 224 Levelling land preparatory to seeding to alfalfa . . . 224 Carefully prepared ditches may be used to guide water from floods

or irrigation sources to points where it can be spread over the

alfalfa field 224-5 Irrigating by border ditches prior to seeding alfalfa .

Yields of alfalfa-grass mixtures may double those of grass alone 224-5 Effects of sulphate fertilizers on alfalfa . . . 224-5 Symptoms o f potash deficiency i n alfalfa . . . . 225 Dodder o n alfalfa . . . . . . . . 240 Residual effects of CMU two years after treatment at 80 and

100 lb. per acre . . . . . . . . . 241

Alfalfa leaves showing damage from spider-mites . . . 241

Stages of lygus bug 272 Stand of alfalfa that was partially destroyed by grasshoppers after

the f i r s t cutting had been harvested . . . . 272-3 Spraying alfalfa in pre-bloom stage for control of lygus bugs 272-3 Dusting alfalfa in pre-bloom stage for control of lygus bugs 272-3 Larva of western yellow-striped armyworm . . . 272-3 Severe damage to a new stand of alfalfa, caused by feeding by

beet webworm . . . . . . . . . 273

224-5

Effects of insecticides on alfalfa weevil . Damage from the alfalfa weevil

Stages in the life-cycle of the alfalfa weevil Damage from clover seed chalcid . Clover seed chalcid—adult stage .

• 273 . 288

288-9 288-9 288-9 ix

Low-temperature Basidiomycete attacking clones of alfalfa in a disease nursery • • • - • V , , , " , . Symptoms of winter crown-rot on crowns and roots of alfalfa . Range of crown bud-rot damage on alfalfa .

Crown-rot of alfalfa caused by Rhizoctoma sp.

Rhizoctonia root canker on alfalfa Root symptoms of bacterial wilt

Top symptoms of bacterial wilt . . • • • Young shoots of alfalfa affected by alfalfa stem nematodes

Tractor and side-delivery rake . . . • • • A buck rake, or sweep, used to gather hay and transport it short

distsjiccs • • • * * " * . • •

i A baled-hay loader which is detachable and powered by the

ground wheels ' Forage harvester and trailer being used to chop alfalfa hay

I Tripod used to cure alfalfa hay in a moist climate .

i Hay cocks may kill the alfalfa plants underneath if left too lonj before being gathered

) Well-constructed stacks of alfalfa hay provide semi-permanen storage in dry climates . . • • • ) Cut silage ready to be unloaded and packed into a trench silo ) Excavation for a pit silo in a side-hill .

) Stack silo constructed of poles and barbed wire ) Plastic covers seal alfalfa silage and prevent spoilage

) Green alfalfa being harvested as soilage to be fed directly ti livestock

) Dairy cows pasturing on alfalfa ) Fatal effects of alfalfa bloat

:) Alfalfa in a grass-alfalfa mixture recovers much more rapid!

than grass alone

<) Dehydration plant

LIST OF FIGURES IN TEXT World distribution of alfalfa

Total area of alfalfa in Austria, 1931-54 Area and distribution of alfalfa in Austria Area and distribution of alfalfa in France Area and distribution of alfalfa in Italy Area and distribution of alfalfa in Spain Area of alfalfa in the U.S.S.R. .

Area and distribution of alfalfa in Canada

Area and distribution of alfalfa in the United States Main areas and distribution of alfalfa in South America

Area and distribution of alfalfa in the Republic of South Africa Area and distribution of alfalfa in Australia

Diagram o f a n alfalfa flower . . .

XI

TABLE PAGE

331

TABLE PAGE

XXIX. List o f insect etc. pests o f alfalfa . . . . 267-8 XXX. Preservation of dry matter, protein, and carotene, in alfalfa

harvested and stored as silage and as field-cured hay,

I945-46 329 XXXI. Revolutions per minute required for various peripheral speeds

and cylinder diameters . . . - 3 3 8 XXXII. Sieve sizes recommended for alfalfa seed . . . 339 XXXIII. Production of certified seed of Atlantic, Buffalo, Narragansett,

Ranger, and Vernal alfalfa, in relation to total production

and total seed used, 1950-55 . . . 351 XXXIV. Chemical composition of alfalfa feedstuff's . . 354-5

XXXV. Vitamin D content of alfalfa in international units per pound 363 XXXVI. Approximate content of amino-acids in the protein (N X

6-25) of alfalfa hay, dehydrated alfalfa meal, and whole egg; average values and values relative to egg protein as a

standard . . . 365

XXXVII. Total dry matter, total digestible nutrients, protein, and total number of analyses, for various alfalfa feeds . 367 XXXVIII. Effect of oxygen content of the atmosphere on carotene

retention i n stored alfalfa . . . 384 XXXIX. Average yearly and monthly wholesale prices per ton of

dehydrated alfalfa meal, bagged at Kansas City, U.S.A. . 386

THE need for a book on alfalfa, in all its aspects as an important world crop, has been evident for a considerable time. Stewart's Alfalfa-growing in the United States and Canada was published in 1926, and has, ever since, been the latest book on the subject for readers of English. Yet its coverage was largely confined to North America; and it is scarcely neces- sary to emphasize the spectacular advances which have occurred since that time. Alfalfa has almost certainly been the subject of more research than any other single forage crop, and possibly of more than all other forage crops combined; consequently, an extensive literature has ac- cumulated that is to be found only in scientific journals and government bulletins.

It has not been easy to survey this literature and analyse the informa- tion contained in it, and, at the end, the author is left with persistent

doubts as to the adequacy of his efforts. But, probably, English-language publications have been fairly surveyed, and fortunately they represent the major areas where research has been most active. However, language barriers have prevented similar detailed attention to work done in western Europe, the Soviet Union, and South America, so that some important research has doubtless been overlooked or has received inadequate treatment. Criticisms or comments will be most welcome, either with regard to errors which may have crept in, or by way of suggestions con- cerning subject-matter and presentation.

It is impossible to single out and record all of the assistance which I have received in preparing this work. My colleagues, particularly on the campus of the University of Saskatchewan, but also in other parts of Canada, in the United States, and in countries farther afield, have assisted greatly—especially by reviewing portions of the manuscript, by providing photographs and data, and by general encouragement. I also sincerely appreciate the permission, readily given to me by officials of the Canada Department of Agriculture, to undertake the project while I remained responsible for other duties. Finally, it is a particular pleasure to acknow- ledge the assistance of Dr. M. W. Cormack, Director of the Agricultural Research Station, Saskatoon, who read the manuscript in its entirety and offered many useful suggestions; of Miss Gladys Hall for a job of typing that erased many inconsistencies in the original draft; and of my wife, Margaret, for encouragement, for invaluable help in checking the type- script and mounting photographs, and for assembling the lists of references and preparing the Subject Index.

J. L. BOLTON CANADA AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION,

SASKATOON, CANADA.

xiv

I

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

THE common alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) appears to be the only forage crop which was cultivated before recorded history—a distinction that limits the accuracy with which its centre of origin can be deduced. Thus wild-growing plants occur in the southern parts of the Soviet Union, and farther west in southern Europe, probably because the crop was cultivated in those areas at some time in the past (areas east of the Caspian Sea are in- cluded). It is generally agreed, however, that the most likely centre of origin is in southwestern Asia—probably in Iran. De Candolle (1919) states that 'It [alfalfa] has been found wild, with every appearance of an indigenous plant, in several provinces of Anatolia, to the south of the Caucasus, in several parts of Persia, in Beluchistan, and in Kashmir'.

This general area would include the modern political divisions of Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, West Pakistan, and Kashmir. Stewart (1926) appears to agree with de Candolle; but Klinkowski (1933) would take northwestern Persia as an eastern limit, and designates Media, the northwestern part of modern Persia, as the home of alfalfa. Our Frontis- piece (PI. 1) shows a typical plant of common alfalfa.

VERNACULAR NAMES

Throughout its long history as a forage crop, alfalfa has had many common names. The ancient Greeks called it medical and the Romans medica. According to Piper (1935) and Klinkowski (1933), it is still known as erba medica in Italy, and the names mielga or melga, that still persist in parts of Spain, are probably also derived from the ancient classical names. In the principal areas where it is now cultivated, however, the plant, is known either as 'alfalfa' or as 'lucerne', and the use of these two names appears to be closely associated with the advance of the crop through North Africa and Europe.

The old Iranian name is unknown, but is thought to have been uspust, aspest^y or isfist. Piper suggests that the Arabs then modified these Persian words, with or without the prefix el or al, to fisfisat, isfast, elkasab, alfafa, alfasafat, and finally to alfalfa. This suggests that the Arabs may have obtained alfalfa from Iran, and that they preserved a modification of the original name across North Africa and into Spain. From Spain, the plant

A 1

spread to the New World, and is now known throughout North and South America as alfalfa.

The name lucerne, variously spelled luzern, luserne, and lucem, may have a much more modern derivation than the word alfalfa. It was used first in 1587, according to Piper (1935). Most authorities have assumed that the word comes from Luzern, a Swiss canton and lake, or from the river valley, Lucerna, in northwestern Italy. Ahlgren (1949) claims that alfalfa was cultivated in the Lake Luzern district of Switzerland in the first century A.D., and that its popularity there led to its being called lucerne in other parts of Europe. On the other hand, Coburn (1906) claims that the crop was cultivated in France and England long before it was found near Luzern. If this is true, then de Candolle's (1919) explanation may be correct; for he suggests that an old Spanish word eruye was modified by the Catalonians to userdas, and this in turn to laouzerdo in the patois of southern France, and finally to luzerne. Regardless of origin, the name lucern(e) is now in common usage in all European countries east of Spain, and also in South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia.

Various common names have been applied also to Medicago falcata L.,*

of which probably the most widely known is 'yellow-flowered alfalfa' (PI. 2). However, this name is not distinctive, as other somewhat similar species of Medicago also have yellow flowers. The name 'Siberian' has been used, but the range of the species extends far beyond the area so implied. F. N. Meyer, quotedf by Oakley & Garver (1917), proposes the name 'sholteek', which is already in use over a large area in Asia where M. falcata is abundant. As Oakley & Garver suggest, however, it is unlikely that any name not including the word alfalfa or lucerne will be generally accepted. Thus, such names prefixed to alfalfa as Orenburg, Semipalatinsk, and Don, which define areas from which mixed lots of M. falcata seed have been introduced, are likely to continue in common usage.

EARLY SPREADING

The progress of alfalfa from its early days, probably in Iran, to its present-day prominence practically throughout the agricultural world, is a story that reaches back almost as far as historical records go. Klinkowski (1933) claims a biblical reference at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar (625-561 B.C.), while Wing (1912) assumes that the 'grass' referred to in the book of Daniel was alfalfa, and speculates imaginatively on its curative properties. However, neither of these references has been substantiated.

2

Klinkowski also notes that alfalfa was mentioned by Aristophanes (444- 380 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). If they were really to alfalfa, then these references may be the earliest records of the crop, although Wheeler (1950) claims that the earliest mention of alfalfa has been discovered in a Babylonian text written about 700 B.C. Theophrastus, writing about 300 B.C., definitely mentions alfalfa, but no further references to it are found until Roman times.

About 2,000 years ago, alfalfa had become an important item in Roman agriculture. Its culture and uses are discussed by several writers of that era, such as Varro, Virgil, Strabo, Pliny the Elder,* and Columella.

Pliny stated that alfalfa was imported into Greece from Media during the Persian invasions under Darius, which took place in 492-490 B.C.

Pliny's account has been questioned, but it appears to be the most authentic record we have. Although he was writing about an event that took place some 500 years before his time, he had many more records to consult than are known to us. Stewart (1926) claims that there were at least fifty Greek books on farm management alone, which were known to the Romans but have not survived.

The exact date when alfalfa was introduced into Italy is unknown, but it was probably about 200 B.C. The culture and management of the crop is discussed in considerable detail by Pliny, Columella, and Varro;

and whereas some of the practices they recommend appear strange, or even ridiculous, today, yet much of their advice is sound according to modern knowledge. Varro suggested a rate of seeding (about 34 lb. per acre) and noted that alfalfa was attractive to bees; Pliny recommended the use of chalk (liming), cutting at the beginning of flowering, and plant- ing in a well-drained soil; Columella cautioned his readers to feed sparingly at first, lest bloating occur and the blood supply be greatly increased.

Pliny probably had this same condition in mind when he said: 'It must not be fed to cattle to the point of repletion, lest it should be necessary to let blood.' Columella knew that alfalfa improves the soil, and he had a high regard for its food value. Thus he says, 'But of those which find favour the Medic plant is outstanding for several reasons: one seeding affords, for all of ten years thereafter [Pliny gave it thirty years], four harvestings regularly and sometimes six; it improves the soil; lean cattle of every kind grow fat on it; it has medicinal value for an ailing beast;

and one iugerum [jugerum] of it provides abundant fodder for three horses for an entire year'. From this we can estimate a yield of about 12 tons per acre per year. If we consider the care given to the crop, and per- haps allow a little for over-enthusiasm by Columella, the estimate is not unlike present-day expectations.

Judging from all the old records, there can be little doubt that alfalfa was the principal fodder for the cavalry and chariot horses of the ancient

*i.e. Gaius Plinius Secundus (A.D. 23-79).—Ed.

3

Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and it was almost certainly carried along the old caravan routes by the travellers and invaders of those days. In this way, it probably spread eastwards into China and India, westwards to Greece and Rome, and across North Africa to Spain. It is also likely that the Romans introduced alfalfa into western Europe when they invaded that area. However, with the fall of the Roman Empire, and the advent of the Dark Ages, alfalfa disappeared from Europe, or at least from the records. During this time, it is thought to have been cultured by the Arabs in the oases of North Africa. Then, when the Moors invaded Spain in A.D. 711, undoubtedly they took alfalfa with them. It proved to be well adapted, and eventually became commonly grown.

From Spain the crop appears to have spread eastwards through Europe and into Russia. However, the original introduction of alfalfa to European countries is largely conjecture. Ahlgren (1949) states that the Romans introduced it into France, Spain, Germany, and Switzerland. If so, it seems likely that isolated pockets of the crop may have survived through the Dark Ages to aid in a later distribution. Thus, Klinkowski's (1933) detailed and extensively documented history of the spread of alfalfa in Europe may represent a secondary dissemination rather than the original.

According to him, alfalfa spread from Spain to France about 1550, to England about 1650, to Austria and Germany from 1700 to 1750, and to Russia and northern Switzerland also in the eighteenth century.

PROGRESS IN THE NEW WORLD

The introduction of alfalfa to the New World begins a stage in its history that is less of conjecture and more of historical fact. Colonists from Spain, England, and Germany, included it among those seeds, tried and tested in the old land, which they hoped would help to bring success to their new venture. Early in the sixteenth century, the Spaniards invaded and conquered Mexico and Peru. As Stewart (1926) relates, 'When Cortez and Pizzaro overran Mexico and Peru they left disease and desolation in the land. How it happened may not be ascertained, but when the conquests had run their courses the natives had alfalfa in lieu of their gold and of their monarchs.' No doubt this was small comfort to the native populations who suffered from the tyranny of the invaders, and as a method of dispersal it can scarcely be recommended. Yet the story is not inconsistent with the previous history of alfalfa and, as so often before, the plant proved remarkably well adapted in its new environments.

From Peru, alfalfa spread to Chile, thence to Argentina, and, in 1776, to Uruguay. In Argentina, particularly, it has become increasingly important until the acreage grown there may now be greater than in any other country in the world (except for the United States—cf. p. 10).

Mexico and Chile, and possibly Peru, were sources for the intro- duction of alfalfa to the southwestern United States. Stewart (1926)

4

considers it very likely that many acres, in what is now United States territory, were producing alfalfa in 1836 when the Spanish governor of Mexico took the missions away from the church. Seed from Old Mexico was used by Major Jacob Downing to plant a field near Denver, Colorado, in 1863. Other introductions from Mexico were undoubtedly brought into Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, by the early missionaries.

By far the principal introduction, however, came into California during the 'gold rush' period as 'Chilean clover'; the exact date is not certain, but it appears to have been during or just before 1850. Ahlgren (1949) states that the first planting was made in 1851 by W. E. Cameron at Marysville in the Sacramento Valley. By 1858, Mr. Cameron had 270 acres in pro- duction.

From California, alfalfa spread eastwards. It was admirably fitted for the dry climate and irrigated soils of Utah, where the Mormon pioneers grew it for seed—at first under the name lucerne. Utah-grown seed was used extensively in the neighbouring States as well as in Utah. In 1869, alfalfa reached Kansas, and by 1894 it was a well-established crop in that State. By 1890 it was being grown in Montana, and, by 1900, in Iowa and Missouri. The earliest introduction of alfalfa from the Chilean source was probably made in 1886 by Wing (1912) to his home farm in Ohio, where eventually it developed into a successful planting. Thus, a portion of the heritage of the Spanish conquerers had spread over a considerable part of the United States by the beginning of the twentieth century.

Alfalfa was an ideal forage for most of the southwestern and central States, but real success in its extension into the eastern and northern States had to await introductions from other sources and also the development of suitable management practices and adapted varieties.

Meanwhile, the New England colonists had been making intro- ductions of alfalfa into the States along the Atlantic seaboard, although the acid soils and humid climate of that area must have been almost insurmountable obstacles to the early alfalfa growers. Consequently there was much experimentation, but little real success. Ahlgren (1949) states that the first records of alfalfa in the United States were from Georgia in 1736 and from North Carolina in 1739. It was brought into New York State in 1791, and has done well ever since on calcareous soils in that region. In Virginia, Thomas Jefferson had a field of it in 1793, and George Washington had one in 1798. In 1899, only 1 per cent of the alfalfa in the United States was grown east of the Mississippi River. It is a tribute to plant breeders, and to those who developed management practices such as inoculation, liming, and fertilizers, that in 1949 over 40 per cent of the alfalfa acreage in the United States was found east of the Mississippi.

Important as were the Spanish sources of alfalfa over a large part of the United States, the Common alfalfas, as they came to be known, were not very cold-resistant. Regional adaptations in such States as Montana

5

and the Dakotas attained a measure of winter hardiness, but these were insufficient to make the crop reliable in the northern States and Canada.

This problem was solved through seed being brought in by colonists from Europe and imported from Asia—Germany, Russia, Turkestan, and India, being the chief source areas.

The most famous American introduction, and the one responsible for the greatest increase in alfalfa acreage, was imported by a German immigrant, Wendelin Grimm, who brought in some 15 to 20 lb. of seed from his old home in Kulsheim in the Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany, when he settled on a farm in Chaska, Carver County, Minnesota. He arrived in 1857, and the next year planted a field of his ewiger Klee (everlasting clover), as he called it. According to Wheeler (1951), there are conflicting accounts of the performance of Grimm's early plantings.

Apparently, signed statements have been produced to prove that practically all the plants survived from the outset, and on the other hand similar statements to prove that a progressive elimination of non-hardy types occurred during the years when the strain was grown by Grimm and his neighbours. Nevertheless by 1900, Grimm alfalfa, as it was named, proved to be exceptionally winter-hardy when compared with Common types. Wendelin Grimm did not live to receive the acclaim accorded to the new variety, for he died in 1891. In 1900, Mr. A. B. Lyman, who lived a few miles from the Grimm farm, interested Professor Willet M. Hays, of the Minnesota Experiment Station, in his field of hardy alfalfa.

Professor Hays immediately realized the potential value of the strain, and had it thoroughly tested at many other stations. Thus, by means of the Grimm strain, alfalfa advanced rapidly into the northern United States and Canada.

Other strains of hardy alfalfa appeared early in the twentieth century, but none attained the prominence or wide distribution of Grimm. The variety Baltic was found in South Dakota about 200 miles distant from Wendelin Grimm's farm in Minnesota. Baltic is similar to Grimm in appearance and hardiness, and it has been suggested that it may have come from the early Grimm stock. It seems, however, more likely to have originated in a separate European introduction, as it was discovered in

1904 before Grimm had become widely distributed. In 1907, Professor N. E. Hansen introduced a strain known as Cossack, which had originated from a single plant growing on the Russian steppes near the Volga River.

Cossack eventually became a fairly important variety, especially as a source of breeding material. The United States Department of Agri- culture introduced some alfalfa from Ladak in Kashmir, in 1910. Ladak proved to have even more winter-hardiness than had Grimm, and greater resistance to drought and disease. It did not become as widely distributed as Grimm, but became much more important than Baltic or Cossack, and it has increased alfalfa acreages—especially in those areas where only one cutting of hay is harvested. Another hardy variety of alfalfa was found

6

on the farm of Arnold Bros, in Dawson County, Nebraska, in 1927. It had been planted sixteen years previously from seed imported from Turkestan, and was named Hardistan. This last variety is of special interest as it is a hardy strain of the true Medic ago sativa type—in contrast to the variegated type represented by Grimm, Baltic, Cossack, and Ladak. Indeed Hardistan is comparable with Grimm in its degree of cold-resistance at points as far north as Saskatoon, Canada.

The first Canadian introduction of alfalfa was into the Province of Ontario. According to J. M. Armstrong et al. (1948), a shepherd accom- panying an importation of sheep from Lorraine, France, brought 2 lb. of seed to the farm of Nathaniel Bethel in Welland Co., Ont., in 1871. The progeny of this seed became known as Ontario Variegated, and this strain is still widely grown in eastern Canada. It has not proved hardy enough for the prairie provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, and, in 1908, Grimm and Baltic were imported into that area by James D.

McGregor, and seeded on his ranch near Suffield, Alberta. According to Wheeler (1951), McGregor obtained 125 lb. of a Grimm selection, and 325 lb. of Baltic. The fate of the Baltic seed is unknown, but by 1914 the Grimm selection (known as 19-A or Disco 19-A) had provided the ancestry of a large part of the Grimm alfalfa grown in western Canada.

Other selections, Grimm Sask. 451 and Grimm Sask. 666, which trace back to the original Minnesota Grimm, were made at the University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, in 1910 and 1912. Grimm Sask. 451 was selected for hardiness, and Grimm Sask. 666 for both hardiness and seed yield.

In view of the controversy over the original performance of Grimm, it is noteworthy that Grimm Sask. 451 represents the surviving population after a considerable elimination of non-hardy plants from Minnesota Grimm.

INTRODUCTION TO SOUTH AFRICA AND AUSTRALASIA

While the culture of alfalfa was being developed in North and South America, the crop was becoming established in other new settlements.

About 1850, alfalfa was brought to Cape Colony in South Africa, where it soon became important on the large ostrich farms. When the era of ostrich farming declined, alfalfa remained, and has become widely grown on irrigated land in the Union (now Republic) Provence lucerne, prob- ably originating from southeastern France, has been and still is, the most popular strain, although Hunter lucerne and Chinese are also grown.

Seed produced in the country is marketed locally and exported as South African or Cape lucerne.

Alfalfa probably reached New Zealand from Europe about 1800 or earlier. The crop is particularly adapted to, and popular in, the South Island, where the Marborough strain developed. This strain, and selections from it, is accepted as being the best adapted type for New Zealand.

7

According to SpafFord (1933), the first record of alfalfa in Australia is in a report written by Governor King in 1806, although seed was probably introduced shortly after the first settlements were established.

Governor King stated that the crop was not very favourably received by the early settlers. However, it has become progressively more popular, particularly in recent years. The Hunter River type seems to be especially well adapted to Australia.

The history of alfalfa until about 1900 has been one of introduction and relatively slow distribution. Since that time, the popularity of the crop has increased, with a particularly rapid growth during the past twenty years. Much of the gain in seeded acreage is undoubtedly due to advanced knowledge of management practices and improved publicity.

The beneficial effects of lime, phosphorus, potash, and certain minor elements, when applied to the soil, are fully appreciated. Inoculation of seed and soil with nitrogen-fixing bacteria is a common practice, and the discovery of new herbicides and insecticides has solved other problems.

The causes underlying the notorious variability in alfalfa seed-setting have been determined, and, as a result, seed production in the south- western United States has become stabilized at a very high-yield level.

Before the turn of the century, such practices were unknown, or else not fully appreciated.

Although management was important, an equal, or even greater, effect was exerted through the development of new varieties. It was Kirk (1927) who focused the attention of plant breeders on forage crops in general, and on alfalfa in particular. The principles and methods of breeding as outlined by Tysdal et al. (1942) gave a further impetus;

especially important, meanwhile, was the discovery and identification of the causal organism of bacterial wilt (F. R. Jones, 1925). This disease threatened alfalfa in many important areas in North America, and Jones's work opened the way to a solution. Thus, the release for cultivation of Ranger in 1942, and of Buffalo, Vernal, Caliverde, and Lahontan, in later years, provided wilt-resistant, adapted varieties for the main areas of production in the United States and Canada. Atlantic and Narragansett are adapted to eastern North America, and Rambler is spreading alfalfa into the extensive drylands and grazing lands of the northern prairies. These developments will be discussed in later chapters; but they are mentioned here to indicate how events in contemporary history are influencing the adaptation and distribution of alfalfa.

8

II

DISTRIBUTION AND PRODUCTION

THE collection of statistics on the distribution and production of alfalfa presents many difficulties. Thus, very often, forage crops are not even reported, or the records for alfalfa may be lost under the general heading of 'hay crops'. Moreover, statistics on alfalfa used in a mixture with other legumes and grasses are seldom reported as such, although the crop is important for this purpose. Fortunately, however, adequate data are available from a number of countries, while in other cases statistics have been obtained from private correspondents, from the Food and Agri- culture Organization of the United Nations (F.A.O.), and from the litera- ture.

Table I is a summary of the latest estimates, by country, of the areas TABLE I

ESTIMATES OF THE CULTIVATED AREA OF ALFALFA, BY COUNTRIES *

9

TABLE I—cont.

10

* Estimates are from official sources unless otherwise indicated. A dash indicates that no data were available.

1 F.A.O. statistics.

2 Federal Republic only.

3 See Fleischmann (1937).

4 Personal estimate from agriculturist in country concerned.

5 See Lubenets (1956).

6 See Buller et al. (1955).

7 See discussion under Argentina; Tome (1952) estimates 17,000,000 acres.

8 See Rogers (1952).

9 1928 data.

of alfalfa cultivation throughout the world. The values given by Klin- kowski (1933) for the earlier years of 1926 and 1929 are included for comparison. This table is followed by a separate treatment of each country which usually gives area data in more detail and, when it is available, includes information on the production of seed and forage. An analysis of the data presented in this chapter suggests that a reasonable estimate of the area of cultivated alfalfa in the world is about 50 million acres, of which some 2.5 to 3 million acres are in seed production. The main areas are indicated in Fig. 1 and Table 1.

EUROPE

A considerable acreage of alfalfa is grown in Europe, particularly in France and Italy, the present estimate being in excess of 11 million acres.

This figure does not include Bulgaria and Romania, as the author was unable to obtain statistics from these countries. Approximately 75 per cent of the acreage reported for the Soviet Union is located in European Russia, according to Lubenets (1956). In addition, various perennial and annual species of Medicago are important constituents of the native flora in many parts of Europe.

AUSTRIA

The area of cultivated alfalfa in Austria has doubled during the past twenty years. There was a slow rise before World War II, a slight decrease during the war years, and, after the war, a steep rise to a high point of slightly over 200,000 acres in 1949 (Fig. 2). Apparently, the

acreage has become stabilized at about 185,000 (75,000 hectares) during recent years.

Pammer (1956) discussed the culture and distribution of the crop in Austria. At present, it occupies about 1.9 per cent of the cultivated acreage. The heaviest concentration is in the north-east (Fig. 3), where high summer temperatures, cold winters with a light snowfall, and low humidity, are characteristic. Thus, in the northern part of Lower Austria

12

and Burgenland, alfalfa occupies over 5 per cent of the total arable land, and in two districts, Hollabrunn and Mistelbach, the proportion is over

10 per cent.

Although alfalfa is the most important forage crop in northeastern Austria, it is not restricted to that region and is grown widely in other parts of the country. Climatic conditions in Austria are generally favour- able to alfalfa, but soil conditions often limit production of the crop.

Normally, three or four cuttings are harvested each year. In the northern districts alfalfa is often grown in pure stands, whereas in the central and southern districts it is usually seeded in a mixture with grasses. Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) is commonly grown in the mixtures, but tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius (L.) Mert. & Koch) is used occasionally.

BULGARIA

No recent information has been obtained on alfalfa in Bulgaria.

According to Klinkowski (1933), alfalfa was introduced into that country in about 1890. He states, further, that very good seed yields were ob- tained, especially in the grape-growing districts where climatic conditions are particularly favourable. However, at the time at which Klinkowski wrote, seed production techniques were primitive and most of the seed was thrashed by hand.

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

Alfalfa was known in Czechoslovakia as early as the seventeenth century, but did not become widely distributed until much later. It is now grown in most of those parts of the country in which the soils are rich in lime and have a suitable water-table. Bohemian sand lucerne is popular in the plains of the Elbe. Other regional types in production are Slovakian and Moravian.

According to Klinkowski (1933), there were 262,224 acres of alfalfa in Czechoslovakia in 1929. Recent statistics, from the Czechoslovak Ministry of Foreign Trade, show a very considerable increase in area;

however, a decreasing trend from 1950 to 1957 is indicated (Table II).

TABLE II

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF ALFALFA IN CZECHOSLOVAKIA

*The short ton, 2,00c lb., is used throughout this book. The weights in this column are dry-weights.

14

DENMARK *

Approximately 1 per cent of the cultivated area of Denmark is seeded to alfalfa. Estimates of the total area harvested for green fodder, hay, and ensilage, vary from 38,053 acres in 1947 to 46,702 in 1956. A high of 77,837 acres was reached in 1950, and the ten-year average was 59,576 acres. The area under alfalfa has declined slowly since 1950, despite evidence that the crop does very well where conditions are suitable for it.

There are no reliable statistics on production, but the estimated yield is about 4 tons per acre, or about 25 per cent greater than the yield of clover- grass fields. Normally two, and occasionally three, cuttings are harvested annually. Some farmers mix alfalfa with red clover and timothy, but almost as many grow it in pure stands.

For the most part, alfalfa is grown in Denmark on sandy, well-aerated soils of neutral or slightly alkaline reaction. Areas of chalky soils are particularly favourable, and most of the production is found in coastal areas and along streams. The cold, rainy climate of Jutland is unfavourable, and alfalfa is rarely grown there. Proper attention to drainage and liming could greatly extend the area of alfalfa now cultivated.

The area in seed production is small, and seed yield is uncertain.

The ten-year averages are 442 acres, and production about 170 lb. per acre. The seasons of 1947-48 were very favourable for seed setting, and average yields of 523 lb. per acre in 1947, and of 324 in 1948, arc on record. However, the seed yield for 1949-56, inclusive, averaged only 106 lb. per acre, and in 1954 there was almost complete failure. Du Puits is practically the only variety used for seed production in Denmark.

FRANCE

Approximately 4 million acres of alfalfa were grown in France in 1955. The acreage represents 2.9 per cent of the total land area, and about 8.5 per cent of the arable land in the country. An indication of the value of alfalfa in the agriculture of France is given by the fact that almost 47 per cent of the acreage of cultivated meadows is seeded to it. The crop is grown in almost all of the ninety departments of the country, but there are notable concentrations in the southern, western, and northern regions (Fig. 4 and Table III). Fifteen départements grew more than 80,000 acres in 1952 (Table III), and accounted for about 45 per cent of the total area in alfalfa. The estimated yield varies from less than a ton to about 4 tons per acre. Returns are generally higher in the north than farther south, except where the crop is irrigated.

A. G. Davis (1950) described the distribution of alfalfa in France, and noted that it is particularly adapted to grow in the valleys of the four

*Information supplied by Hj. Møller Nielson, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural College, Hojbakkegard, Taastrup, Denmark.

15

major rivers—the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone. There is a large area centring on Paris, and including the departments of Oise, Aisne, Marne, Seine-et-Oise, Seine-et-Marne, Eure-et-Loire, and Loiret.

It is to this latter area that the Flamande type is adapted.

FIG. 4.—Area and distribution of alfalfa in France. The density of the dots indicates the relative production of alfalfa in each departement.

In the western part of France there is another concentration in the departments of Maine-et Loire, Vendee, Deux-Sevres, Vienne, Charente, and Charente-Maritime. Charente-Maritime, which lies in the area between the lower reaches of the Loire and Garonne rivers, has the largest alfalfa acreage of any department in France, and is the home of the Poitou type.

Towards the south-west, Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn-et-Garonne, Gers, Haute-Garonne, and Tarn, are important from the point of view of alfalfa production. Much of this area is semi-mountainous; the region known as

16

TABLE III

AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD OF ALFALFA IN FRANCE *

* From Statistique Agricole Annutelle, Ministere de l'Agriculture; Republic Francaise, Paris, pp. 88-89, 1953.

B 17

Languedoc is included, with the result that alfalfa from there is often given that name. However, R. Mayer, as quoted by A. G. Davis (1950), suggests that it is not a true type.

The southeastern area includes the departments of Isere, Drome, Vaucluse, Gard, and Bouches-du-Rhone. It is in this area that the famous Provence alfalfa originated. Exports from this region undoubtedly

18

TABLE III—cont.

formed the basis of much of the alfalfa now grown in South America, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.

As well as for forage, alfalfa is also grown widely in France, for seed and its production has been adequately described by Demarly & Felix (1956).

They place the average annual production for 1950-53 at 26,455,200 lb.

Of this amount, about 70 per cent was used in France, the balance being exported. Demarly & Felix divide the seed-producing area into four zones which roughly coincide with those for the crop as a whole. Thus, in the north, they list the departments of Siene-et-Oise, Indre-et-Loire, Indre, Cher, Loire-et-Cher, Nievre, Eure-et-Loire, and Loiret; in the west, Charente, Charente-Maritime, Vendee, Deux-Sevres, Vienne, and Maine-et-Loire; in the south-west, Aude, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, Gers, and Dordogne; and, in the south-east, the departments of Ardeche, Drome, Vaucluse, Gard, and Bouches-du-Rhone. In the area around Paris, the second cutting is usually left for seed; farther south, the third cutting is left for seed. According to A. G. Davis (1950), the yield of seed may range from 187 to 710 lb. per acre.

GERMANY

During the fifty years before Klinkowski (1933) published his paper, the acreage of alfalfa in Germany increased by only 19 per cent. Recent statistics for both divisions of Germany were not available to the present writer, but those for the Federated Republic do not indicate any spectacu- lar increase since 1935 (Table IV). Klinkowski discussed the distribution of alfalfa in Germany in some detail, and it is assumed that his comments are generally applicable today. Thus, Lower Franconia and the neigh- bouring districts of Baden are characterized by limestone soils and a relatively dry climate, and in this region the greatest concentration of alfalfa in Germany is to be found. In Baden, the crop may occupy up to one-third of the arable land, and alfalfa is one of the most common of forage crops in the plain of Baden, the rain-shadow of the Hochvogesen, and the vineyard districts. In the Eifel area, the Bitburg district is the centre of production. Here alfalfa is grown on up to 25 per cent of the cultivated land—most typically on Keuper lime and Devonian soils.

Thuringia, the Bavarian Palatinate, parts of Wurttemberg, parts of Hessen, the state of Anhalt, and the province of Saxony, are also important. In addition, there are individual areas of some size in the Uckermark and near-by parts of Pomerania in the northern part of Germany, and in some parts of eastern Germany.

The only large areas of alfalfa seed production in Germany are in Bavaria, Baden, Thuringia, and the Eifel. In general, they coincide with the main areas of the crop. The famous 'Old Franconian' alfalfa, that gave rise to the variety Grimm (cf. p. 6), is grown in the districts

19

represented by Wiirzburg, Ochsenfurt, Uffenheim, Karlstadt, Schwein¬

furt, and Kitzingen—also in parts of Geretzhofen, Hassfurt, Gmuden, Hammelburg, Scheinfeld, Lohr, and Marktheidenfeld. These are the drier districts of Germany, with an annual precipitation varying from 20 to 24 in., although it may drop to as low as 11-16 in. in very dry years.

Thuringia is an important area for seed production, and is represented by the Weimar district, by a narrow zone of the Gotha district, and by the districts of Sondershausen and Hildburghausen. Thuringian alfalfa was known perviously as the blue-flowering Stotternheim alfalfa, after the district of Stotternheim where, it is thought, alfalfa was first grown in Germany.

* Taken from Klinkowski (1933).

In a prefatory note to Memoir No. 1 of The Grassland Research Institute, William Davies (1955) states:'Lucerne has been cultivated in Britain for the past three hundred years but until recently the total acreage seldom exceeded 30,000 acres and its culture, to a large extent, was limited to the region of the Thames estuary. In recent years the acreage under lucerne has appreciably increased. It is now of the order of 112,000 acres in England and Wales, with records of lucerne leys in every county. Even so, half of the existing acreage lies in East Anglia, Kent, and Lincolnshire.'

Prior to 1950, alfalfa was considered not worth including in British agricultural statistics. Since that time, certain data on acreage and p r o - duction have been compiled, which are summarized in Table V.

20

TABLE IV

AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD OF ALFALFA IN GERMANY

GREAT BRITAIN

TABLE V

AREA AND ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF ALFALFA IN GREAT BRITAIN

Approximately one-half of the alfalfa grown in Britain is used for grazing: thus in the year 1954-55, 57,500 acres were cut for hay, and the balance was used for grazing.

Seed production is not usually successful, and France is the main source of seed. Canadian Grimm has had a good reputation, but is now largely replaced by varieties with better local adaptation.

GREECE

According to Papadopoulos (1957), alfalfa is well-suited to the dry climate of Greece, where the area under cultivation has increased from about 13,000 hectares (about 32,000 acres) before World War II to about 50,000 hectares (about 123,500 acres) at the present time, This is out of a total cultivated area of 3 million hectares, and the over-all yield is about 4 1/2 tons per acre.

In Greece, before World War II, the variety Provence was grown almost exclusively. After the war, however, the African, Hungarian, and Talent varieties, were found to be better adapted to the country, and these have now largely replaced Provence. The Greek Ministry of Agriculture has defined the areas where these new varieties should be grown, as follows: Talent is confined to the northern and central mainland and the central part of the island of Peloponnesus; African is recommended to be grown only in the remaining areas in Peloponnesus, and Hungarian is grown on the mainland south of a line drawn approximately from Ioannina to run through Lamiatokhalkis.

HUNGARY

Alfalfa was cultivated in Hungary as early as 1779, but it became extinct there during and following the Thirty Years' War (Klinkowski, 1933). In 1779,2 lb. of seed were brought in from Vienna, and from this the Hungarian alfalfa of today originated. This latter is recognized as one of the most valuable regional types in Europe, and is characterized by forms exhibiting rapid recovery after cutting, great winter hardiness, and also drought resistance. Four or five cuttings per year are normally harvested. According to Fleischmann (1937), the average area under

21

alfalfa during the three years 1932-34 was 474,126 acres, and about one¬

fifth of the area, or 101,284 acres, was in seed production. The average seed yield during the period was 220 lb. per acre. Seed production does not always meet local demands, and Romanian seed is often imported.

Low-priced seed from Italy is used also, but Provence alfalfa is not popular because of its high price.

F I G . 5.—Area and distribution of alfalfa in Italy. Each dot represents 2,000 acres.

The climate of Hungary is continental, and tends toward drought and wide extremes of temperature, with dry, hot summers, and winter temperatures which may reach — 30°C. (— 22°F.). Often there is little winter snow-cover. Under these conditions it is not surprising that a hardy regional type should have evolved.

22

The distribution of alfalfa in Hungary may be divided roughly into four areas, occurring on the right and left banks of the Tisa and Danube rivers, respectively. The Alfold region, also known as the Great or Lower Hungarian Plain (Pester Basin), is of particular importance. It is bordered on the north-west, north, and east by the Carpathians, and on the west and south by the Danube River. Alfalfa is grown everywhere in this area, except on very salty soils and on shifting sands. The best area for seed production is in the arid parts of the Great Plain, and coincides closely with the best area for wheat production.

ITALY*

Alfalfa was introduced into Italy in Roman times, but apparently disappeared during the Middle Ages. It was re-introduced from Spain in the sixteenth century, and is grown today under the common name of

TABLE VI

AREA AND PRODUCTION OF ALFALFA HAY AND SEED IN ITALY, 1956

* Statistics not available but the crop is of little importance, and, at most, equal to that of Puglie or Sardegna.

† Weighted average.

erba medica (Klinkowski, 1933). The crop is distributed throughout the country (Fig. 5 and Table VI), but is most common in the northern and central provinces. It is most suited to areas where irrigation is scarce or

*The author is indebted to Professor Dr. G. Haussmann, Director, Stazione Sperimentale di Praticoltura, Lodi, Italy, for statistics on the area and production of alfalfa in Italy, and for notes on the adaptation, distribution, and uses of the crop.

23

absent, and where the annual rainfall is 20 in. or more. Thus, alfalfa is a typical forage crop on the hilly lands in central Italy, in the valley of the Po and its delta plain, on the dry or half-irrigated Venetian lowlands, and in other similar areas. It is not well adapted to live in alpine and subalpine regions, in the semi-arid Mediterranean areas, and on certain heavy clay soils in central Italy.

Alfalfa in Italy is used mostly as hay. In Lombardia and Emilia it is made into a silage, with a 35 to 40 per cent water-content, by the 'Cremasco' or 'Samarani' method. Alfalfa, as pasture, is limited to central and southern Italy where, occasionally, it is grazed by sheep during the winter months. There is no specialized seed production. If weather conditions are favourable, seed may be produced from the second or third cutting, from stands two years old or older. The principal seed production is for the use of the grower, but commercial seed is grown in the provinces of Venezie and Emilia, and to some extent also in central Italy.

NETHERLANDS*

Alfalfa in Holland is used almost exclusively for hay and dehydrated products. In 1939 the area devoted to alfalfa production was about 8,000 acres, of which 39 per cent were located in the province of Zceland and 33 per cent in the province of North Holland. The area under alfalfa has increased considerably since the war, particularly on the newly-drained polders; thus, in 1955, the total area was estimated at about 17,500 acres.

The distribution in 1955 was 26 per cent in the province of Zeeland, 21 per cent in the north-east Polder, and, in other provinces, 15 per cent in South Holland, 12 per cent in North Brabant, n per cent in North Holland, 6 per cent each in Groningen and Limburg, and 2 per cent in Gelderland. The culture of alfalfa is sporadic in Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel, and Utrecht.

Previously, alfalfa was cultivated only on the better clay soils; recently, however, it has been considered possible to cultivate alfalfa on the better sands. Three cuttings are harvested per season, or occasionally four;

but the practice of taking four cuttings may lead to a poor yield in the following year. No records are given of seed production, and apparently practically all the seed needed is imported. Winter hardiness is important in the choice of varieties: seed from Germany, eastern Europe, and northern France, is favoured, and Du Puits is a leading variety.

NORWAY

Red clover is the principal forage legume in Norway, and alfalfa is relatively unimportant, although it is grown as far north as the fifty-

*De Nederlandse Rassenlizst voor Landbouwegewassen [The Netherlands Guide for Field Crops]—1956.

2 4

ninth parallel of latitude. There is no local seed production of alfalfa, almost all of that used being of the Grimm variety and imported from Canada. Alfalfa is grown in mixture with red clover and timothy rather than in pure stands. Imports of seed vary from 11,000 to 33,000 lb.

annually, and the seeding rate is estimated at about 13 lb. per acre. There

25