2. Literature review
2.3 Settlement planning in Vedic period
2.3.7 The Indo-Aryan village
30 Again, the references from the texts are mere guidelines. They can neither be perceived as strict acts or rules, nor do they describe the actual scenario. The relation between theory and practice can be described as interactive (Sachdev, 2011).
The cities were mostly located at the crossings of the great highways, which were used as trade-routes. River sites, sea coasts and the mouth of rivers were among the critical site forces. River was a means of communication within and out of the area under jurisdiction as well as a natural resource for water and sanitation. The first Indo-Aryan colonies were located along the plains of Indus and Ganges as the rivers provided them the best routes for their advancement. Besides, a coast belt or, a river side along with a mountain valley can provide natural means of defense against invasion. Therefore, we find the reference of a great many Indo-Aryan settlements in the shape of riparian towns. Many orthodox treaties have made it customary to establish the city on the right bank of the river (Dutt, 1925).
As for example, the ancient renowned town of Saptagrama (সপ্তগ্রাম), which today is modern day Chittagong, was a famous emporium. The towns of Bagerhat (োটগরহাট) in Khulna (খুলনা) and Rampurhat (রামপুরহাট) in Birbhum (েীরভূম), according to Mr. Dutt are expansion of local markets, known as hats. There were academic cities, famous among them are University towns of Nalanda (নালন্দা) and Taxila (তেনেলা). Navadip (নেিীপ) of Bengal was a well-known center for learning Sanskrit. Some cities were famous for crafts and local industries which evolved as a result of local geology and climate. Dacca was famous for Muslin, Krishnanagar ( ৃষ্ণনগর) for clay modelling, Murshidabad (মুনেযদাোদ) for silk clothings and Golkunda (বগালট ান্দ) for diamonds. The name of cities Cuttack ( ট , Kataka), Sealkot (নেয়ালট াট), Nagarkot (নগরট াট) and Mangalkot (মঙ্গলট াট) came from the term ‘Katak’ or ‘Kot’, which means a fort. Some cities originated around a single temple. Etymological references thus, provides in some cases the nature and character of some cities (Dutt, 1925).
31 Although a village is generally considered as a spontaneous unit having organic growth (a more appropriate term being ‘Palli; পল্লী’) in ArthaShastra, Kautilya gave instruction for establishing villages throughout the kingdom for the sake of administrative efficiency. New villages were laid out by either inducing foreigners to immigrate (paradesapavahanena; পরটদেপেহটননঃ) or by relocating excessive inhabitants from densely populated centers of the kingdom (svadeshabhisyanda-vamanena va;
স্বটদেনভসযন্দ-োমাটননঃ). The kingdom may construct villages either on new sites or on old ruins (bhutapurvam abhutapurvam va; ভূতপূেযম-অভূতপূেযম). Villages were also founded for military purposes (Dutt, 1925).
According to Arthashastra, villages shall be formed having families from a minimum number of 100 to a maximum number of 500 of agricultural people from Sudra caste.
The boundaries shall have a length of 1-2 Krosha (বরাে; 2250 yds.) and will be denoted by a river, a mountain, forests, bulbous plants (grshti), caves artificial buildings (setu- bandha; বসতুেন্ধ) or by trees such as Salmali (silk cotton), Sami and Kshira Vrksha (েীরেৃে; Milky tree). Villages were established nearby to tanks, lakes or rivers in order to ensure water supply and sanitation as well as for performing religious ritual.
Markendeya Purana (মাট যটণ্ডয় পুরাণ) also suggests that villages are settlements of peasantry, mostly of Sudra castes, in the center of arable lands. However, it will be inaccurate to assume that the Vedic villages were not inhabited exclusively by the Sudras (Dutt, 1925).
Mayamata provides a classification for Brahman villages based on the numerical strength of their population which is shown in Table 2.4.
Table: 2.4 Classification of Brahman villages according to Mayamata
Class Grade Nomenclature Population of
Brahmans/ Vipras
Best (Uttama) Superior Uttomottama 12,000
Mediocore Madhyama 10,000
Inferior Adhama 8,000
Average (Madhyama) superior Madhyomottama 7,000
mediocore Madhyama 6,000
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Inferior Adhama 5,000
Small (Adhama) superior Uttama 4,000
mediocore Madhyama 3,000
Inferior Adhama 2,000
Inferior (Nicha) superior Nicha 1,000
mediocore Nicha 700
Inferior Nicha 500
A village inhabited by a single patriarch with its large retinue and menial staff is termed as ‘Ekabhoga (এ টভাগ)’. A village of learned Brahmans is called ‘Mangala (মঙ্গল;
auspicious)’. Village having noble Brahmans or Vipendra (নভটপন্দ্র) is known as Agraharam (আগ্রহরাম). However, with time as the process of civilization progressed, the nature of the villages became composite (Dutt, 1925).
Mānasāra and Mayamata describes that a village, exactly as a fort or town should be defended by a girdle of walls and moats. However, lexicographer Bharat defines a Grama or village as a settlement devoid of such bounding condition. Mcdonell also opines that the villages were probably open except for the cases with forts inside them (Dutt, 1925).
The Mayamata sets forth the dimension of the villages in two ways:
a) Peripheral measurements: In terms of peripheral measurements the villages are of five kinds. The circumference smallest village is 20,000 dandas and the largest village is 100,000 dandas.
b) Length and Breadth: Lengths of villages have forty varieties ranging from 500 to 20,000 dandas. The breadth may be 300, 500, 700, 900, 1000, 1300 or 2000 dandas.
Once again, these instructions are rather optional but these wide range provide a large scope for choice (Dutt, 1925).
The villages as well as all kinds of settlements were oriented in alignment with the cardinal directions. The villages generally had four gates at the middle of four sides and as many near the four corners. There was a large peripheral street running around the
33 village. Two major streets connecting two opposite main gates intersect each other at the center, dividing the village into four large blocks. A temple or hall is generally placed at the center which also works as a public gathering space. Each blocks are subdivided into multiple blocks by internal streets which are always straight (Dutt, 1925).
The two major streets crossing at center had houses on one side facing the street and the ground floor of these houses were used as shops. The peripheral streets also had houses on one side which were mainly public buildings like schools, colleges, libraries, guest-houses etc. All other streets had residential buildings on both sides (Dutt, 1925).
Temples for public worship, gardens, parks, tanks and ponds were placed in such locations so as to be accessible by majority of the inhabitants. The best quarters are reserved for Brahmans and artist classes. The habitation of Chandalas (চন্ডাল; people from lowest caste), the temple of fearful deities and the places for cremation were located outside the village boundaries (Dutt, 1925).
Mānasāra classifies the villages into eight types in terms of their shape, street-planning, folk-planning and temple planning. They are called Dandaka (দন্ড ), Sarvatobhadra (সেযটতাভর), Nandyavarta (নন্দযােতয), Padmaka (পদ্ম ), Swastika (স্বনি া), Prastara (প্রির), Karmukha ( রমুখ) and Chaturmukha (চতুমুযখ). Based on only street-planning Mayamata classifies the villages into: Dandaka (দন্ড ), Swastika (স্বনি া), Prastara (প্রির), Prakirnaka (প্রা ীণয ), Nandyavarta (নন্দযােতয), paraga (পরাগ), Padma (পদ্ম) and Sripratishthita (শ্রীপ্রনতনিত). Kamikagama ( ানম াগাম) classifies the villages into fifteen catagories which includes all the types stated by Mānasāra and Mayamata and the following four: Sampatkara (সম্পত ার), Kumbhaka ( ুম্ভ ), Srivatsa (শ্রীেৎসয) and Vaidiaka (বেনদ ) (Dutt, 1925). Brief description of the types of Indo-Aryan villages are given below.
1. Dandaka (দন্ড ): refers to a village that resembles a phalanx or a staff. According to Maayamata this type of village has straight streets running from west to east and south to north crossing at right angle at the center. Even if a village has only one street, it can still be termed as Dandaka. Mānasāra describes that a Dandaka village is rectangular or square and possesses a rampart of the same shape. It has one to five
34 parallel streets running from west to east. Two transverse streets running from north to south are placed at the both extremities forming right angle (Mangalavithi; মঙ্গলনেথী) and another one at the middle (Rajavithi; রাজনেথী). The width of the streets varies from 1-5 dandas. The central transverse street can be made equal to or broader than the rest. The two transverse streets at the extremities have a single row of houses while the principal streets have double rows. Each house may have a breadth of 3, 4 or 5 dandas according to their function and suitability having a length twice or thrice of the breadth. The village may have a wall or a ditch surrounding it. The village should have four large gateways in the cardinal directions and smaller ones at several corners. Two principal reservoirs can be located towards the south-west and north-east corners. This type of village may contain 12, 24, 50, 108 or 300 Brahman families.
2. Sarvatobhadra (সেযটতাভর): This type of village may be oblong or square. The folk-planning of this village can be arranged following the figure of Manduka (মন্ডু ; Figure 2.8) or Sthandila (স্থাষ্টিলা). The number of car streets (Rathya; রথ্য) may vary from 1 to 5 with a boulevard running around the village. The internal streets are lined with single row of houses while the outer streets has double row of houses. The village should be secured by a wall and a ditch, with four large gates on the cardinal sides and many smaller gates nearby the corners. Assigned quarters for artisans and craftsmen can be located along the boulevard (Maharathya; মহারথয). The houses of Vaisyas and Sudras should be allocated towards the south.
3. Nandyavarta (নন্দযােতয): It may also be oblong or square. If the village is square, it can be divided following the mystique figure Chandita (চন্ডীতা, also known as Manduka) and if it is rectangular, if can be divided according to the figure Paramasayika (পরমসানয় া, Figure 2.8). This type of village has four large streets along the periphery, running in each cardinal direction at right angles. The eastern street runs from north to south and projects out. The southern street runs from east to west, the western street from south to north and finally the northern street from west to east.
There must be 3, 5, or 7 such sets of concentric streets with rows of houses on each side. The lanes lying transverse between the main roads do not provide access to the houses from them. Hence, a Vithi (ষ্টেথ্ী) refers to a lane which is lined with the houses and a Marga (র্ার্ু) refers to a road is devoid of or irregularly lined with the houses.
35 Maayamata describes Nandyavarta as a village having 5 main roads running from east to west, while the number of transverse thoroughfare varies from 13-17.
4. Padmaka (পদ্ম ): Mānasāra describes that this type of village has equal length and breadth and the enclosing walls are circular. The village and its wall may also be quadrangular, hexagonal or octagonal. It can also be divided following the figures Chandita or Sthandila. According to Mayamata the number of streets running from east to west may be six or seven, while the transverse street may be 20.
5. Swastika (স্বনি া): According to Mayamata, the eastern street of this village starts from north-east projects out to the south; the southern street begins from south-east corner towards the west. The western street runs in northerly direction starting from south-east. The northern street starts from north-west and run towards east. Mānasāra depicts that the Length and breadth of this village may be of arbitrary proportion. The village should be divided following the figure Paramasayika (Figure 2.8). The streets should be laid out in conformity with the figure Swastka. Internal streets have rows of houses at one side only and the peripheral roads have rows on both sides. The village should be defended by a rampart surrounded by a ditch.
6. Prastara (প্রির): Etymologically, the term Prastara refers to a couch. Mayamata describes that this type of village is intersected by three streets running from east to west and by several transverse streets ranging from three to seven. According to Mansara, this village can be either square or oblong in shape. The village can be divided following the mystic figure Paramasayika, Chandita or Sthandila and Paiscaha (বপোচ). It can be divided into 4, 9 or 16 wards by a network of appropriate number of highways, having a range of breadth between 6, 7, 8, 9 and 11 dandas. The division of plots were executed according to the degree of rank and wealth of the occupants. Therefore, all the wards are not divided into equal number of plots or blocks. One is divided onto nine plots, another into sixteen, the third into twenty five and so on. The high-ranked or rich personnel thus occupied the largest plots. This layout seems to have provisions for future extension by means of enclosing larger areas with new walls. There may be even 8 to 12 of such enclosures. The shape of theses enclosures will be determined by the shape of the original village.
7. Karmuka ( রমুখ): Karmuka means a bow. Therefore, the shape of this type of village is semi-circular or semi-elliptical. Among the various types of towns, the
36 Pattana, Kheta and Kharvata are planned after this. This shape of village is generally suited to a riparian site or a sea-shore. There are two car-streets and one principal road.
The number of transverse streets may vary from one to five. Houses are placed on both side of them. There may be additional radial roads. The gates can be placed as many as desirable and the presence of the peripheral rampart is optional.
8. Chaturmukha (চতুমুযখ): It can be square or oblong lying from east to west. There are four great car streets on the four sides. The two large streets crosses at the center divides the village into four wards. Each wards are then divided into blocks by four longitudinal and four transverse roads which have comparatively smaller width than the car streets. The four main gates are placed at the terminus of the principal streets.
Residential blocks are not recommended to be placed on the car-streets. If the village is chiefly occupied with people from trading class, it is clled Kolakoshtha (কলাগ্বকাষ্ঠ).
9. Prakirnaka (প্রা ীণয ): It means a ‘Chamara’, a fan made with big hairy tails of yaks fastened to a handle. Mayamata and Kamikagama both suggests that this type of village has five varieties. According to Mayamata, the number of easterly roads is four, while the number of northerly roads varies from eight to twelve. Kamikagama mentions that the northerly roads may vary from four to seventeen.
10. Paraga (পরাগ): According to Mayamata, this type of village has six easterly streets and eight to twenty-two northerly streets. Kamikagama remarks that the layout contains six to twenty three northerly streets and six cross roads facing east. Although, this type of village is small, the road network contains a large number of streets that facilitates easy movement of large volume of traffic.
11. Sripratishthita (শ্রীপ্রনতনিত): Mayamata describes that, this type of village contains eight principal roads facing east and the number of northerly streets varies from eight to thirty-two, which according to Kamikagama, varies from eight to thirty six.
12. Sampatkara (সম্পত ার): Etymological origin suggests that this type of village is very auspicious and secures wealth and prosperity. The Sampatkara along with Kumbhakam, Srivatsa and Vaidika are mentioned in only Kamikagama. It has five streets running from east to west and twenty one transverse streets.
13. Kumbhakam ( ুম্ভ ): its shape is either circular or polygonal like a pitcher, as the name suggests. The streets in this village run parallel to the contour.
37 14. Srivasta (শ্রীেৎসয): The number of streets has no limits. The houses are allowed to build up more than one storey.
15. Vaidika (বেনদ ): The number of streets also has no limits. Each street must have houses on both sides. Like the previous case, the houses are also allowed to build up more than one storey.
Although, the description of the last seven types of villages are quite inadequate, it is noteworthy that the number of transverse streets elongated in north-south direction exceeds the number of east-west elongated streets. It implies that the villages were elongated along east to west so that winds could not blow up clouds of dust, while the buildings were open to free ventilation which in India generally runs from south to north and north to south (Dutt, 1925). The diagrams showing cadastral patterns for different types of Vedic villages are shown in figure 2.4.
According to Prof. Dutt, the Indo-Aryan Villages differ from the existing villages of Bengal in terms of planning. He mentions that the villages in Bengal are results of unconscious spread of human habitation due to population growth into soil which was originally overgrown with woods and thickets. These villages are not a product of conscious planning processed as opposed to ‘Vedic villages’.
Dandaka Sarvatobhadra
38
Nandyavarta for square, oblong and circular settlements from left to right respectively
Swastika Prastara
Padmaka Karmuka Chaturmukha
Figure 2.4: Diagrams for Vedic villages
2.3.8 Siting considerations and environmental rationales