A Skripsi
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher’s Training
In a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of S.Pd (S1)
In English Language Education
By
Abdul Halim
108014000095
DEPARTEMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS’
TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
A "Skripsi"
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training In a Partial Fulfillment of Requirement forthe Degree of S.Pd (Sl)
'
in English Language Education
By: Abdul Halim 108014000D5
Approved by:
Advisor
I
Ilrs. Nasrun Mahmud. M.Pd. NrP. 150 041070
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY
OF
TARBIYA AND TEACHERS
TRAINING
SYARIF
HIDAYATULLAH
STATE
ISLAMIC UMYERSITY
JAKARTA
1435
Ht20t4
ANALYSIS ON THE USE OF PRESENT PERFECT
A}tD PRE,SENT
PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE/' (A Case Studyat
Third Grade of SMP Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat). written by AbdulHalim,
student's registration number 108014000095 was examined by the Committee on 17 Desember a014. The "skripsi" has been accepted and was declared to have fulfilled one of the requirements for the degreeof
"S.Pd" @achelor of Arts) in English language Education at the English Department.Jakafia, 17 Desember 2Al4
CHAIRMAN
SECRETARY
EXAMINER
I
EXAMINATION COMMTTTEE
: Drs. Svauki-M,Pd.
tlrP. 19641212 199fi3
I 002
: Zaharil Anasy. M.Hum. NrP. 1976fiW 20W101 002
: Dr. Ratna Sari Dewi M.Pd. NIP. 19720s01 199903 2 013
EXAMINER
II
: I)rs. Svauki. M.Pd.tlrP. 19641212 199rc3
I
002'AcknowledgedBy Dean of Tarbiyah and Teachers'
Saya yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini,
Nama
: Abdul HalimTempat, Tanggal
Lahir :
Mojokerto,23 September 1987NIM
: 108014000095Jurusan
: Pendidikan Bahasa InggrisAlamat
:Jl. Wijaya Kusuma no.27 Desa Mangelo Kecamatan Sooko , Mojokerto-
Jawa TimurMENYATAKAI\I DENGAIT SESUNGGUHNYA
Bahwa skripsi yang berjudul 6An Error Analysis on the Use of Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continous Tense'(A Case Study at Third Grade Students
of
SMP Muhammadiyahl7
CiputatTimur)
adalah benar hasil karya ilmiah saya sendiri di bawah bimbingan dosen:1. Nama Panbimbing
I
NIPJurusanlProgram Studi 2. Nama Pembimbing II
NIP
Jurusan/Pro$am'Studi
: Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. : 150 041 070
: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggrs
: Ismalianing Eviyuliwati, M.Eum. : 19740723 200003 2 001
: Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Saya bertanggung jawab secara akadernis atas semua yang saya tulis dalam skripsi ini serta siap menerima segala konsekuensi apbila terbukti bahwa skripsi ini bukan hasil karya ilmiah saya sendiri.
Demikian surat pemyataan
ini saya
buat dengan sesungguhnya sebagai salah satu syarat menempuh Ujian Munaqasah.Jakart4 30 Sepember 2014 Mahasiswa Ybs.
lll t
.t
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iv
‘Skripsi’, English
Education Department, the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training, State Islamic University of Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta.
Advisors : 1. Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. 2. Ismalianing Eviyuliwati, M.Hum.
Key Words : Error Analysis, Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
The objective of this study is to analyze the most frequent errors made by the third grade students of SMP Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat in using present perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense. The classification of errors of this study is Heidy Dullay’s classification. The subject of this study consists of 30 students of the third grade of junior high school which are taken by random sampling.
The method used in this study is descriptive analysis method to describe
students’ errors and analyze the data by using formula: P=F/N x 100%, P=Percentage, F=Frequency of errors made, N=Total of students’ errors. The data were taken from the test; it was a sentence completion test.
The result of the error analysis process showed that students committed error into three types: Omission, Addition and Misformation. The findings showed that there are 195 errors made by the students. From the frequency of each error types, Misformation was the error which most frequently produced by the students in their using present perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense. In term frequency, misformation which consists of 139 errors or 71.28% is followed by
v
Abdul Halim, 2014, “An Error Analysis on the Use of Present Perfect Tense
and Present Perfect Continous Tense” (A Case Study at Third Grade Students of SMP Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat Timur), ‘Skripsi’ , Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta.
Pembimbing : 1. Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd. 2. Ismalianing Eviyuliwati, M.Hum.
Kata Kunci : Analisa kesalahan, Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continuous Tense.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis kesalahan yang paling banyak dilakukan oleh siswa kelas tiga SMP Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat dalam penggunaan Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continuous Tense.. Klasifikasi kesalahan yang digunakan adalah klasifikasi Heidy Dullay. Sumber data dalam penelitian ini adalah 30 siswa SMP yang diambil dengan random sampling.
Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah analisa deskriptif untuk menggambarkan kesalahan siswa serta menganalisis data dengan menggunakan rumus: P =F/N x 100%, P=Presentase, F=Banyaknya kesalahan yang dibuat, N=Jumalah keseluruhan kesalahan siswa. Data diambil dari tes; tesnya merupakan tes melengkapi kalimat yang kosong .
vi
Lord of the world who has blessed the researcher in completing this ‘skripsi’
entitled “An Error Analysis on the Use of Present Perfect Tense and Present
Perfect Continous Tense” (A Case Study at Third Grade Students of SMP
Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat Timur) Peace and Blessing be upon the Prophet
Muhammad SAW, his family, his companion, and his followers.
First of all, the writer would like to express his greet appreciation to his
supervisors, Drs. Nasrun Mahmud, M.Pd and Ismalianing Eviyuliwati, M.Hum
for their irreplaceable encouragement, great support, guidance, suggestions and
patience in correcting and helping him in finishing his “ skripsi”.
The writer would like to thanks to her beloved parents Anshorudin and
Ikah Kartika Sasi. This paper is proudly for you both. His family who always give
him supports and motivations to finish his research. Thank a lot for your support
and prays to him. May Allah bless you forever. Amen!
The researcher realized that without support and motivation from people
around him, he could not finish this ‘skripsi.’ Therefore, he would like to give his
deepest appreciation for:
1. All lecturers in English Education Department who always give their
motivation and valuable knowledge and also unforgettable experience during
his study at Faculty of Tarbiyah And Teachers Training of State Islamic
University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd, as the chairman of English Education Department.
3. Mr. Zahril Anasy, M. Hum, as the secretary of English Education Department.
4. Dra. Nurlena Rifa’I, M.A., Ph.D. as the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and
Teachers Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
5. Drs. Sayuti Sufriatna, M.Pd, as the principal of SMP Muhammadiyah 17
Ciputat who has allowed the researcher to do research at that school. Also, all
vii finish “skripsi”.
7. To any other persons who are named cannot be mentioned one for their
contribution to the researcher during finishing his “skripsi”.
Hopefully, this ‘skripsi’ can be useful to the readers, particularly to the researcher. Also, the researcher realized that this ‘skripsi’ is far from being
perfect. It is a pleasure for her to receive constructive critics and suggestion from
anyone who read her ‘skripsi’ for valuable improvement.
Jakarta, 30 September 2014
The Writer
Abdul Halim
viii
ENDORSEMENT SHEET BY THE EXAMINATION COMITTE ... ii
SURAT PERNYATAAN KARYA SENDIRI ... iii
ABSTRACT ... iv
ABSTRAK ... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT…. ...viii
LIST OF TABLE... x
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A.Background of the Study ... 1
B. Identification of Problem... 3
C.Focus of Study and Research Questions ... 3
D.Objective and Significance of the Study ... 4
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Error Analysis ... 5
1. Definition of Error ... 6
2. Procedures of Error Analysis ... 7
a. Collecting of a Sample of Learner Language ... 7
b. Identification of Errors ... 9
c. Description of Errors... 10
d. Explanation of Errors ... 13
e. Evaluation of Error ... 16
B. Tense... 16
1. Meaning of Tense ... 16
2. Kinds of Tense... 17
ix
D.Present Perfect Continuous Tense ... 30
1. Meaning of Present Perfect Continuous Tense ... 30
2. The Form of Present Perfect Continuous Tense ... 32
3. The Usage of Present Perfect Continuous Tense ... 47
F. Previous Studies ... 39
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A.Place and Time of the Study... 41
B. Data and Data Sources ... 41
C.Method of the Research ... 42
D.Instrument of the Research ... 42
E. Technique of Collecting and Analyzing Data ... 42
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDINGS A.Data Description ... 48
B. Discussion ... 62
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS A.Conclusion ... 70
B. Suggestions ... 71
BIBILIOGRAPHY ... 72
x
1. Table 3.1: The Test Item Scheme……….43
2. Table 3.2: The Interview Item Scheme ………44
3. Table 4.1: Number of Student’ correct and incorrect answer………….. 48
4. Table 4.2: Description of Students’ error in Omission in using present
perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense………50
5. Table 4.3: Description of Students’ error in Addition in using present
perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense………53
6. Table 4.4: Description of Students’ error in Misformation in using present
perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense………55
7. Table 4.5 : The Recapitulation of Error Types………..60
8. Table 4.6 : Frequency of Error in the use of Present Perfect
Tense………..60 9. Table 4.7 : Total Frequency of in the use Present Perfect Tense and Present
Perfect Continuous Tense ……….62
xi
2. Answer Keys ... 76
3. Table of Students’ Errors Analysis ... 77
4. Transcription of Interview Questions………...107
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
English language is one of the compulsory subject and also the first
foreign language that must be learnt by student at every level of school in
Indonesia. Based on 2006 Curriculum, the General Goal of English study of
second year of Junior High School is to develop communicative competence in
English both oral and written.
Based on the statements above, by learning English, the students are
expected to acquire some abilities; those are ability to listen, to speak, to read, and
to write English correctly. There are four basic skills that should be mastered by
the student, namely; listening, speaking, reading and writing. In order to master all
the skills, students need to learn language components which consist of
vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling and semantics.
Grammar is one of language aspects. There are many aspects discussed in
English grammar, one of them is tense. Tense is the verb form which shows
difference in time. Paul Roberts states that “no grammatical problem is more difficult than that of tense”.1
One of the tenses that should be mastered by English learner is, “Present
Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continous Tense”. Consequently, errors are
committed by the learners when they use these tenses.
Based on the writer’s experience when he conducted “Praktik Profesi Keguruan Terpadu (PPKT)” in the Junior High School, he found that there were
many students who still got an error in understanding present perfect tense and
present perfect continuous tense. As can be seen in the following sentences:
* they has taught in this school in 1998
The sentence above shows that the student already used the correct usage
of present perfect but he selected the wrong form of present perfect tense. Since
“they” is plural, the sentence form should be “They have”. In addition, the student missed the time signal “since” which should be used in present perfect sentence.
Another example is shown in the following sentence:
* we has been studied in two hours
The sentence above shows that the student already used the correct usage
ofpresent perfect continuous but he selected the wrong form and usage of present
perfect continuous tense. The student used the form of present perfect not present
perfect continuous. Since “we” is plural, the sentence form should be “We have”.
In addition, the student missed to change verb into verb-ing “been studying” and
also the time signal “for” which should be used in present perfect continuous
sentence.
Because of those, learning English is not as easy as we may imagine. In
the fact, the student cannot avoid making errors. They are those parts of the
process of learning English. Also, errors are the inability of the students in using
rules of the components and elements of the second language. The student can
learn from their experience of making error to be a better one. The more they
make an error, the more feedback they got.
Generally, the students have not mastered any kinds of verb yet especially
the third form or past participle of irregular verbs that are used in present perfect
tense. Because irregular verbs must be memorized, this is why there are many
students who still make an error and mistake in learning present perfect tense.
Although there are some students who have already memorized the irregular verb,
but they still get mistake and error in expressing the time. While error and mistake
are two different things as define by some expert; Error cannot be self-corrected
by the student while mistake can be” 2The student still confused to distinguish of
Pesent Perfect and Present Perfect Continous Tense. Based on syllabus for third
grade in Junior High School, Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continous Tense
are type of tenses that must be mastered by the student of third grade Junior High
School. Even though they have learned it, but they still make some error in
2 E. Wilson and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, Revised Edition, (New York: Litter
learning Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continous Tense. Especially in
the use and form of present perfect tense and present perfect continous tense. The
researcher would like to conduct further research entitled “An Error Analysis on
the Use of Present Perfect Tense and Present Perfect Continous Tense” (A Case Study at Third Grade Students of SMP Muhammadiyah 17 Ciputat Timur)
B. Identification of the Problem
Based on the background of the study above, the researcher identifies
some problems:
1. Students get difficulties in mastering English.
2. Student often make inaccurate using of grammar.
3. Students committed errors in using present perfect and present perfect
continuous tense.
C. Focus of the Study and Research Questions
Based on the identification of the problem, the researcher limits the
discussion of the research only on concerning errors made by the students in
learning present perfect and present perfect continuous tense at the third grade of
SMP Muhammdiyah 17 Ciputat Timur. To specify this problem, the specific
research questions are formulated as follow:
1. What is/are the most error/s made by the students in using present perfect
tense and present perfect continous tense?
2. Why do the students commit errors in using present perfect tense and
D.
The Objective and Significance of Study
As it has been stated in the statement of the problem, the general objective
of this study is to find out the evidences of the students’ error in learning present
perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense at SMP Muhammadiyah 17
Ciputat.
The objectives of the study are:
1. To find out the most frequent error made by students in using present
perfect tense and present perfect continous tense.
2. To find out the reasons why the students committed the errors in using
present perfect tense and present perfect continous tense.
The results of this study are expected to be useful for English teachers,
English learners, and further researchers. For English teachers, they are expected
to know how far the students comprehend about present perfect and present
perfect continuous tense and recognize not only the most type of error but also the
causes of errors in using present perfect and present perfect continuous tense
made by the students. For English learners, this research may help them to use
present perfect and present perfect continuous tense in right pattern. This research
may also be a reference for the future study related to present perfect and present
5
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Error Analysis
The study of learners’ errors and analysis are called error analysis.
According to Brown, “The fact that learners do make errors and that these errors
can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system
operating within the learner, led to a surge of study of learners’ errors, called error analysis.”1
Making errors is unavoidable for a learner because error is natural part of
language learning process. Learner can’t learn a language without first
systematically committing errors, and a study of learners’ errors is part of the
systematic study of the learners’ language which can be used as an observation of
the process of second language acquisition.2 One study which analyses errors is
called error analysis.
According to Ellis and Barkhuizen, error analysis consists of a set of
procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner errors.3
Based on definitions above, the researcher assumes that error analysis is a
way of looking at the errors committed by the learner of the target language. Error
analysis tries to identify, to describe, and to explain the error. Moreover, analyzing
errors helps the teachers to minimize the learners’ errors in their teaching learning
process.
. When the students learn English, they can make a lot of errors. It seems
impossible if the students have never made some errors in their language learning
process, because do some errors is natural. It can be concluded that learners learning
1 H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, (New York: Pearson
Education Company, 2000), p. 218.
2 S. P. Corder, Error Analysis and interlanguage, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981),
p. 1
3 Rod Ellis, Gary Barkhuizen, Analysing learner language, (Oxford: Oxford University
is basically a process that involves the making of errors. Fortunately, the learner
could learn from making those errors.
Based on the statements above it shows that error analysis is a way to
analyze errors that students make when they are in a process of the target language
learning, as information for teachers, in which they can determine what next step in
preventing their students from the same errors and improving their teaching
effectiveness in language class.
1. Definition of Error
Learning a language is fundamentally a process that involves making
mistakes or errors. The mistakes include vocabulary items, grammatical pattern,
and sound patterns as well. Errors in a foreign language teaching especially in
English are the cases which are difficult to avoid. Jeremy Harmer stated, “Errors
are parts of the students’ inter-lingual that is the version of the language which a
student has at any one stage of development”.4 The fact that the students make
errors and these errors can be observed and classified led to a surge of the study of
students’ errors can be analyzed.5
Based on the explanation above, the writer assumes that the student may
make an error when they learnt other language. They can’t avoid making an error.
Since they think that there are many differences grammatical form and they have a
lack competence in this foreign language.
Hubbard states “Errors caused by lack of knowledge about the target
language (English) or by incorrect hypotheses about it; and mistakes caused by
temporary lapses of memory, confusion, slips of the tongue and so on”.6
James differentiates between errors and mistakes. He defines errors as a
systematic mistakes due to lack of language competence while mistakes refer to
4 Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of Language Teaching, (London: Longman Inc, 2001), p. 100. 5 Brown, op.cit, p. 259.
6 Peter Hubbard, A Training Course for TEFL, (New York: Oxford University Press,
performance errors because of a random guess or slip. While errors cannot be
self-corrected, mistakes can be self-corrected if the deviation is pointed out to the
speaker.7
Based on the explanations above the writer concludes that mistakes are
failure to use language because of slip of the tongue, or spelling. The learner easily
corrects this failure since they conceptually understand the language system. On the
other hand, errors are mistakes that the students make due to lack of competence.
They are not able to do self-correction because they do not know the concept.
2. Procedure of Analyzing Errors
In analyzing learners’ errors the researcher should do the procedures in
conducting an error analysis. Ellis provides five steps which are originally proposed
by Corder.8
They are: collecting of a sample of learner language, identification of errors,
description of errors, explanation of errors, and evaluation of errors.
a. Collecting of a Sample of Learner Language
To analyze an error, the researcher have to collect a sample of learner
language provides the data first. The researcher needs to be aware that the nature of
the sample being researched may influence the nature and distribution of the errors
observed. The nature and quantity of errors is likely to vary depending on whether
the data consist of natural, spontaneous language use or careful, elicited language
use.
Ellis and Barkhuizen discuss three types of data collected from learners, one
of which is learner reports. The following types of data were discussed:
7 Brown, op cit, p. 217.
1) Non-linguistics performance
2) Samples of learner language
3) Reports from learners
Ellis and Barkhuizen discuss three types of data collected from learners, one
of which is learner reports. Verbal reports are used to investigate different aspects
of L2 acquisition. First of all, it provides samples of learner language, tokens we all
like to use in our research. Within the broad category of Verbal Reports, Ellis and
Barkhuizen discuss self-reports, self observation, self revelations, and self
assessment.
Corder distinguished two kinds of elicitation: Clinical and Experimental
elicitation. Clinical elicitation involves getting the informant to produce data of any
sort, for example by means of general interview or writing a composition.
Experimental elicitation involves the use of special instrument to elicit data
containing the linguistic features such as a series of pictures which had been
designed to elicit specific features.9
Furthermore, based on those explanations above, the researcher uses the
experimental and clinical elicitation language data to analyze learners’ errors. In
other words, the writer use some questions, especially in using present perfect and
present perfect continuous tense, to investigate or analyze learner’s error.
b. Identification of Errors
The important thing in identification of error is the writer should compare
what the learner said with what he intended to express. In other words, we compare
his erroneous utterance with what a native speaker would have said to express that
meaning. The researcher have to identify error by comparing original utterances
with what I shall call reconstructed utterances.10
Correct utterances having the meaning intended by the learner. Corder
suggests solutions depending on whether we have access to the learners or not.
9 Ibid, p. 46
Firstly, if the learners present we can ask them what they intended to say to make
authoritative reconstruction, it called authoritative interpretation. Then, if the
learners are not available for consultant, we have to attempt an interpretation of
their utterances base on its form and its linguistic and situational context.11
Identifying errors is one of the steps of error analysis. To identify errors we
have to compare the sentences produced by the learner with the corresponding
sentences native speakers are likely to produce to express the same meanings. This
is not always straight forward. Sometimes it is not clear whether a deviation is a
slip of the tongue or a systematic error.
Corder distinguished errors from mistakes. Errors reflect gaps in a learner's
knowledge of the target language. The learner does not know what is correct.
Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance. The learner knows the correct
form but slips due to nervousness, carelessness or tiredness. For example, many
Chinese learners of English, even advanced learners, use he to refer to a female
person in conversations. This is a mistake, not an error, as they know what the
correct form is. Learners may correct themselves once they have the time to monitor
their own speech or writing.
Based on explanation about identification above, the writer assumes that
identification of errors is not as easy as assumed. It is of importance to both
researchers and teachers. For researchers, it is important to collect the right data.
For teachers, it is necessary to treat mistakes and errors differently in their
instruction.
c. Description of Errors
To describe the types of error, Dulay, Burt, and Krashen said that there are
four types of errors:12
11 Ibid, pp. 37-38
12 Heidi Dulay, Marina Burt, and Stephen Krashen, Language Two, (New York: Oxford
1)
Error based on linguistic category taxonomy
These linguistics category taxonomies classify errors according to either or
both the language component and the particular linguistic the error effects.
Language components include phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology
(grammar), semantics and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
And constituents include the elements that comprise each language components,
such as the noun phrase, the preposition, the adverbs, the auxiliary, and the
adjective.
2)
Error based on surface strategy taxonomy
Surface strategy taxonomy highlights four classifications for error as
follows:
a) Omission
Omission errors are recognized by absence of an item that must appear in a
well-formed utterance. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. While
grammatical morphemes play a minor role in conveying the meaning of a sentence.
They include noun and verbs inflections (the –s in books, the –ed in watched),
article (a, the, an), verbs auxiliaries (is, will, can), and prepositions (in, on, under).
Based on those explanations, if grammatical morpheme is omitted, one could guess
what the speaker had in mind.
b) Addition
Addition errors are opposite of omission errors. They are characterized by
the presence of an item, which must not appear in a well-formed utterance. There
are three subtypes of addition. First is double markings, it occurred when two items are marked for the same feature. Second is regularization, it happened when foreign language learners use the regular form instead of irregular form of a word, for
example they use eated instead of ate or sheeps for sheep. The last, if an addition
c) Misinformation
Misinformation errors are signed by the wrong form of the morphemes or
structure selected by students. Similar with addition, misinformation also has some
subtypes; regularization errors, archi-forms, alternating forms. Regularization errors are those in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in
runned for ran or gooses for geese. Another subtype is archi-form, it happened
when learners select one member of a class of forms to represent others in the class.
Dulay, Burt, and Krashen called the selected form by the learner an archi-form, for
example a learner temporarily select just one of the English demonstratives
adjectives this, that, these, and those to do the work for several of them (that dog,
that dogs). The last subtypes is alternating form, it define as ,fairly free alternation
of various members of a class with each other‟, in case of pronoun, the learners
may use masculine for feminine (or vice versa), as in he for she
d) Misordering
Misordering is a wrong placement of morpheme or a group of morphemes
in an utterance.
In another source, James suggests to add one further category which is not
considered by Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, that is blends. The brief explanation about
blends will be discussed below.
e) Blend
Blend errors sometimes called contamination, cross-association, or
hybridization error. It is considered as blends when learners commit errors that
reflect uncertainty as to which of two forms is required. This means that the writer
has activated two structures that are semantically related. But they failed to make a
clear choice to serve their present purpose, and instead combine a part of each to
produce a structure with characteristic of both. This can result in over inclusion as
3) Error based on comparative taxonomy
The classification of error in a comparative taxonomy is based on
comparison between the structure of second language errors and certain other types
of constructions.
4) Error based on communicative effect taxonomy
The communicative effect classification deals with errors from the
perspective of their effect on the listener and reader.13
These errors divided into parts:
a) Global error
Global error hides communication; it prevents the learners from
comprehending some aspects of message.
b) Local error
Local error itself doesn’t interfere with understanding at an utterance,
usually because there is only a minor violation of one segment of a sentence.14
In this research, the researcher uses the Dulay, theory to classify the errors
students committed in using present and present perfect continuous tense, this
theory known as surface strategy taxonomy. Learners may omit necessary items or
add unnecessary ones; they may misform items or misorder them. However, the
researcher only uses misformation, the reason that the researcher merely
concentrates on the form and the usage of present perfect and present perfect
continuous tense. For example, in the sentences:
(a) She has teach in her school for 2008.
(b)They have been watch for two hours.
13 Ibid, p.146—192.
14Henry Guntur Tarigan and Djago Tarigan, Pengajaran Analisis Kesalahan Berbahasa,
In sentence (a) the learners selected the wrong form; the words “teach”
should be change into “taught”. In this case, the learner applies the wrong form of
present perfect tense, so it called misinformation error focus on the form of present
perfect tense. Moreover, in the sentence (b) he/she selected the wrong form; the
sentence should be form as present perfect continuous not present perfect. In the
second case the learner used the incorrect form, so it called misinformation error
focus on the usage of degrees of comparison. Based on those reasons, the test as an
instrument of this research is set up to focus only on the right form and usage present
perfect and present perfect continuous tense.
d. Explanation of Errors
Errors occur for many reasons. Brown distinguishes the causes of error into
four causes; they are inter-lingual transfer, intra-lingual transfer, context of
learning, and communication strategies.15 Obviously, errors always occur in
language teaching and learning and there are some reasons for errors. The main
reason is interference from students’ native language; they think that their native
language is similar to the target language. Moreover, other reason students make
errors because of lack of knowledge about the target language. They do not know
about vocabularies and the grammar of the target language well. Therefore, they
often might do errors in producing the target language.
1) Inter-lingual Transfer
Inter-lingual errors happened because the interference of a mother tongues
into a target language. Interference is transfer of a native language, which impedes
the learning of a target language because of differences between both languages.
2) Intra-lingual Transfer
The early stage of language learning is characterized by a predominance of
intra-lingual transfer, but once the learner has begun to acquire part of the new
system, more and more inter-lingual generalization within the target language
manifested, his previous language itself experience begin to include structure within
the target.
3) Context of Learning
Context refers to the classroom with its teacher and its materials in the case
of school learning. In a classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the
learner to make faulty hypotheses about a language. Students often make errors
because of misleading explanation from the teacher, faulty presentation of a
structure or word in a textbook.
4) Communication Strategies
Communication strategies actually include processes of inter-lingual and
intra-lingual transfer and the context of learning tries to get a message across to a
hearer or reader.
John Norrish exposes three types and causes of errors:
a) Carelessness: it is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers will
admit that it is not always the students’ fault if he loses interest; perhaps the
materials and/or the style of presentation do not suit him.
b) First language interference: It was commonly believed until fairly recently that
learning a language (mother tongue or a foreign language)was a matter of habit
formation. The learners’ utterances were thought to be gradually ‘shaped’ towards
those of the language he was learning.For instance, in English ‘some’ and ‘any’ are
used in different ways.
c) Translation: it should be made clear at this point that the distinction between
‘interference’ is that what takes place is largely unconscious in the mind of the learner.16
From the statements above it shows, the writer can conclude that that the
main cause of error in target language learning is interference from the students’
mother tongue or their first language, and there are still some causes which can
make students making errors in their target language learning such as carelessness,
overgeneralization, context of learning, etc.
Moreover, some linguists differentiate the causes of errors; firstly, Hubbard et al. distinguishes the sources of error into three parts:17
a) Mother Tongue Interference
The sound system (phonology) and the grammar of the first language impose the learners on the new language and this leads to a “foreign‟ pronunciation, faulty grammatical pattern and, frequently, the wrong choice of vocabulary. b) Overgeneralization
The mentalist theory claims that errors are inevitable because they reflect various stages in the language development of the learners. It claims that the learner processes new language data in her/his mind and produces rules for its production, based on the evidence.
c) The Teaching Process
The teaching process also can contribute to the students‟ errors. According to
those who support behaviorism theory, error is evidence of failure, of ineffective teaching or lack of control. If materials well chosen, graded, and presented with meticulous care, there should never be any error.
From the statements above it shows that the main cause of error in target
language learning is interference from the students’ mother tongue or their first
language, and there are still some causes which can make students making errors in
their target language learning such as carelessness, overgeneralization, context of
learning, etc.
e. Evaluation of Errors
In this step, the teacher gives evaluation from the task done by the students
depends on the task that the teacher will be giving to the students. Evaluation of
error is known as correction of errors; the teacher checks the errors and then gives
the correct ones. It is done to make the students realize with their errors in order to
prevent the students make the same errors later consideration of the effect that errors
have on the person (s) addressed. In case, the addressee is a nonnative speaker
teacher, he/she should give the correction of errors according to nature and
significance of errors, priority should be given to errors which may affect
communication and cause misunderstanding.
Harmer in Erdogan suggests three steps to be followed by the teacher when
errors happened. The teacher first listens to the students, then identifies the problem,
and puts it right in the most efficient way. Except for correcting written work, the
teacher should not correct the errors directly but instead, should put marks
representing there is something wrong with that sentence.18
Based on the explanation above, the writer concludes that evaluation of
error is the last step of error analysis. In this step involves the correction of error
the learner. After collecting data, identification, describing, and explanation of
error, the researcher took the last step corrected error made by the learner.
B. Tense
1. The Meaning of Tense
One of important thing in learning grammar is tense. The word ‘tense’ is
derived ultimately from the Latin word ‘tempus’, meaning ‘time’.19 Based on
Webter‘s New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language, ‘tense’ is
any of the forms of verb that show the time of its action or state of being.20
Marcella Frank defines, “tense is special verb ending or accompanying
auxiliary verb signal the timean event takes place”.21 Meanwhile, A.S. Hornby in
Guide to Patterns and Usage in Englih states, “The word tense stands for a verb
form or series of verb forms used to express a time relation. Tense may indicate
whether an action, activity, or state is past, present or future”.
From the definition above the writer concludes that tense is a concept that
indicates the activity or action happening in past, present, or future (related to time)
with changing verb form based on when the state, activity, or action occurred.
18 Vacide Erdogan, Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education: Contribution of
error analysis to foreign language teaching, (2005), p. 267-268
19 John Lyons, Lingusitic Semantic an Introduction, (Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1995), p. 312
20 Noah Webster, Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language,
(New York: William Collins Publisher, Inc, 1980), p. 1880
21 Marcella Frank, Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide, (London, Prentice-Hall,
a. Kinds of Tenses
There are simple and compound tenses in English verbs. The Oxford
Dictionary of English Grammar states: “Some linguists define tense narrowly by
form, which gives English only two tenses: the present tense which in lexical verbs
is the same as the last (except for the -s ending in the third person singular); and the
past tense, which in regular lexical verbs has the –ed inflection.22
From the explanations above, the writer assumes that tense is one of the
aspect of English language that involves rules of the use of language in any
condition. Tense is used to show the relation between the action or state described
by the verb and the time, which is reflected in the form of the verb. There are two
basic tenses in English; the present tense and the past tense.
The present is like the base form, although the verb of the third person
singular is added -s. Regular verbs are added -ed or -d to show the past tense, while
irregular verbs change in many different ways, or not at all in some cases. The time
that a verb shows is usually called tense.
English has also many compound tense. According to A.S Hornby, “As well
as two simple tense (present and past) . These compound tenses are made by
combining two or more verb form. These combinations may be concerned with
time”.23
In her book “Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide” Marcella Frank
points out, “there are three past tenses and two future tenses. Note further that the
past perfect is tied in time to the past tense, the present perfect to the present tense,
and the future perfect tense to the future tense”.24 The most common tenses are the
simple present, past and future. In addition, there are nine other tenses that enable
to express more specific ideas about the time.
Based on the explanation above, the writer concludes that the basics of tense
in English language are present and past. As we know that present tense describe
22 Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, (New
York, Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 395
about the activity that occur in present time and continue in other day. In other side,
past tense describes the activity that occurs and finished in the past time.
According to Paul Robert, “When we think casually of tense of English
verbs, everything may seem ordered and simple: six tense forms – past, present,
future, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect – used to express past time,
present time, future time, with the perfect tense use to indicate completed action in
relation to past, present and future time”.25
Based on the explanation above, there are many kinds of tenses. Simple and
compound tense are mixed together, there are twelve kinds of tenses. They are;
simple present, simple past, simple future, present progressive, past progressive,
future progressive, present perfect, past perfect, future perfect, present perfect
progressive, past perfect progressive, and future perfect progressive.
1)
Present Perfect Tense
a)
The Meaning of Present Perfect Tense
The anterior or perfect is an inflection used to signal a situation or event
that is relevant to another situation or event. Very often, it is the present situation
to which the anterior event is relevant.26
Structurally the term perfect signifies that a form of have accompanies a verb as an auxiliary. Semantically, each of the three present perfect tense denoted
time completed in relation to a particular point:
Present perfect tense time completed in relation to the present
Past perfect tense time completed in relation to the past
Future perfect tense time completed in relation to the future27
Actually, the present perfect tense and simple past tense are used for past
actions or states, but the present perfect describes the present state of the subject as
a result of a past action or state (i.e., the subject is being talked about in the present),
25 Roberts, op cit, p.31
26 Joan L. Byee , Morphology: Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form,
(Philadephia: John Benjamins Publishing Compan, 1985), p.159
whereas the simple past describes solely a past action or state of the subject (i.e.,
the subject is being talked about in the past).
There are some experts who give the meaning of present perfect tense. Mark
Foley and Diane Hall define, “English uses the present perfect tenses (simple and
continuous) to talk about action and states which start in the past but which have
link with the present.28
The present perfect is a compound tense in English (and in many other
languages), meaning that it is formed by combining an auxiliary verb with the main
verb. For example, in modern English, it is formed by combining a present-tense
form of the auxiliary verb "to have" with the past participle of the main verb.
Scott Thornburry in Natural Grammar says, “to talk about things that
happened sometime in a period from the past up to now, often with present result
(this is called present perfect)”.29
In her book “Understanding and Using English Grammar” Betty S. Azar
describes the present perfect tense with formulation diagram as below;
Formulation Present Perfect Tense
Now
Past Future
The diagram above describes that “Present perfect tense expresses a
situation that began in the past and continues to the present”. Geoffrey Leech supports it by stating that “The Perfect Aspect is used for a past happening which
28 Mark Foley and Diane Hall, Longman Advance Learner’s Grammar A Self-study reference
and practice book with answer, (London: Pearson Education Limited, 2003), p. 62
is seen in relation to a later event or time. Thus the present perfect means “past time
related to present time”.
From the definitions above the writer concludes that the present perfect
tense is used to expresses a situation began in the past and continued to the present
or it designates action which began in the past but which continues into the present
or the effect of which still continues.
b)
The Form of Present Perfect Tense
There are some definitions about the form of present perfect tense. Scott
Thornbury defines,” Present perfect tense is formed with have/has + past
participle”.30
In addition, Raymond Murphy states, “The present perfect simple is
have/has + past participle. The past participle often ends in –ed (closed, talked) but
many important verb are irregular (lost, written, done, etc).31
The present perfect tense is a rather important to learn for students because
the students have to know the difference between the regular and irregular verbs.
Some of the students have confused in using of the present prefect tense. In fact,
the structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with
the use of the tense.
Martin Parrot has the same idea about the form of present perfect tense. He
point out that, ”the form of present perfect simple with has (‘s) or have (‘ve)
followed by the main verb in a past participle form”.32
Basically, the present perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb of
have and the past participle from of the main verb (have/has+ past participle (the
form of regular and irregular verb) and it is commonly accompanied by definite
time words such as since and for.
30 Ibid,p. 56
31 Raymond Murphy, English Grammar in Use With answer, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1985), p. 26
32 Martin Parrot, Grammar for English Language Teacher, (New York: Cambridge
This is the explanation about the form of present perfect tense according to
Milada Broukal and Igrid Wisniewska:
(1) Affirmative statements in the present perfect tense with a subject + the present
tense of have + a past participle. We form negative statements with a subject + the
present tense of have + not + a past participle.
E.g. I have played tennis for many years.
Our team has not won any games this year.
We form regular past participle by adding –d or –ed to a base verb.
(2) Yes/no question in the present perfect tense with the present tense of have + a
subject + a past participle. In affirmative short answer, we use a pronoun subject +
the present tense of have. In negative short answer, we use pronoun subject + the
present tense of have + not. We usually contract negative short answer.
E.g. Have you played squash? Yes, I have/No, I haven’t.33
According to Betty Schramper Azar in Fundamental of English Grammar
pointes out that “the basic form of the present perfect: have or has + the past
participle. Use have with I, you, we, they, or plural noun (e.g. teachers). Use has with she, he, it or singular noun (e.g. John). With pronouns, have is constructed to
apostrophe + ve (‘ve) and has to apostrophe + s (‘s)”.34
Based on classification above, the writer formulates the form of present
perfect tense into three types of sentences, they are: affirmative, negative, and
interrogative.
(1) Affirmative
(a) The verb other than be
To make affirmative statement with the regular verb of past participle we use the
following formula:
S + have/has + past participle +…(regular verb)
33 Milada Broukal and Ingrid Wisniewska, Grammar Form and Function, (New York:
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, 2005), p. 11
34 Betty S. Azar, Fundamental of English Grammar, (Jakarta, Binarupa, Aksara, 1993), edisi
Example:
Subject Have / has Past participle (regular verb)
I/you/we/they Have lived In Japan
He/she Has worked In that office
To make affirmative statement with the irregular verb of past participle, we use
the following formula:
S + have/has + past participle + …(irregular verb)
Example:
Subject Have/has Past participle (irregular verb)
I/you/we/they Have heard the news
He/she Has won the game
(b) The verb be
To make affirmative statement, the verb be we use the following formula:
S + have/has + been +…
Example:
Subject Have/ Has
Been
I/you/we/they Have been here for two hour
He/she Has been in Jakarta Since June 2003
It has been very cold Lately
(2) Negative
To make negative statement with the regular verb of past participle we use the
following formula:
S + have/has + not + past participle (regular verb) + …
Example:
Subject Have/ Has
Not Past participle (regular verb)
I/you/we/they have not lived in Japan
He /she has not worked in that office
To make negative statement with the irregular verb of past participle, we use the
following formula:
S + have/has + not + past participle (irregular verb) + …
Example:
Subject Have/
Has
Not Past participle (regular verb)
I/you/we/they have not heard the news
He /she has not won the game
(b) The verb be
To make an affirmative statement, the verb be we use the formula:
Example:
Subject Have/has Not Been
I/you/we/they Have not been Here for two hour
He/she Has not been in Jakarta Since June 2003
It has Not been very cold Lately
(3) Interrogative
(a) The verb other than be
To make interrogative question in affirmative statement with the regular verb of
past participle, we put have/has before the subject.
The formula is:
Have/has + Subject + Past participle (regular verb) +… ?
Example:
Have/has Subject Past participle (regular verb)
Have I/you/we/they Lived In Japan?
Has He/she Worked In that office?
To make interrogative question in negative statement with the regular verb of
past participle, we put haven’t/hasn’t before the subject. The formula is:
Example:
Haven’t/ hasn’t
Subject Past participle (regular verb)
Haven’t I/you/we/they lived In Japan?
Hasn’t He/she worked In that office?
To make interrogative question in affirmative statement with the irregular verb
of past participle, we put have/has before the subject. The formula is:
Have/has + Subject + Past participle (irregular verb) +… ?
Example:
Have/has Subject Past participle (irregular verb)
Have I/you/we/they heard the news?
Has He/she won the game?
To make interrogative question in negative statement with the irregular verb of
past participle, we haven’t/hasn’t before the subject. The formula is:
Haven’t/has’t + Subject + Past participle (irregular verb) +… ?
Example:
Haven’t/ hasn’t
Subject Past participle (irregular verb)
Haven’t I/you/we/they heard the news?
(b) The verb be
To make interrogative question in affirmative statement of verb be, we put
have/has before the subject. The formula is:
Have/has + Subject + been + … ?
Example:
Have/has Subject Been
Have I/you/we/they been here for two hour
Has He/she been in Jakarta Since June 2003
Has It been very cold Lately
To make interrogative question in negative statement of verb be, we put
haven’t/hasn’t before the subject. The formula is:
Haven’t/hasn’t + Subject + been + … ?
Example:
Haven’t /hasn’t
Subject Been
Have I/you/we/they been here for two hour?
Has He/she been in Jakarta since June 2003?
c)
The usage of Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense has several uses. According to George E. Wishon
and Julie M. Burks, “present perfect tense is used to indicate an action that took
place at an indefinite time or over a period of the time in the past, but still relevance
in the present”.35
Betty Schrampfer Azar in Understanding and Using English Grammar
sates,” The present perfect also expresses the repetition of an activity before now.
The exact time of each repetition is not important”.36
In addition, the present perfect tense is used to talk about experience that
have done it in his/her life and it is not important if she/he did it. And adverb of
time to talk experience are ever and never, beside that the present perfect tense is
used to talk about an action which started in the past and continuous up to now.
The present perfect is very often used with since and for. Since is used to
say when something started; it is followed by a reference to a point of time (e.g.
since June 30th). For is used to say how long something has been going on; it is
followed by reference to a period of time (e.g. for two years).37
The adverb of time is often used with since and for to say how to long the
action has lasted and it is used to talk about action that has the result in the present,
the adverb of time often used is just, already andyet. Perfect tenses are never used
something happened such as yesterday, last year etc. But can be used when
discussing the duration of something i.e. often, for, always, since etc. The most
important thing to remember about the present prefect is that it can never be used
with adverbs which describe finished time periods, such as yesterday, five minutes
ago, and at threeo’clock. If a time adverb is used with the present prefect, it should describe a time period which is unfinished.
35 George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burk, Let’s Write English revised edition, (New York:
American Book Company, 1980), p.206
36 Betty S. Azar, Understanding and Using English Grammar, (New York: Prentice Hall,
1989), p. 29
37 Ann Raimes, How English Work A Grammar Handbook, (Cambridge; Cambridge
In line with Paul Robert, William A. Sabin defines,” Present Perfect Tense
indicates action that has was started in the past and has recently been completed or
is continuing up to the present time”.38
That definition has been supported by Raymond Murphy who states, “When
we talk about a period of time that continues up to the present, we use the present
perfect”.39
It can indeed be used to refer to an event that happened in the past, but the
time is not important. What is important is the effect of the event on the present and
on the speaker or writer. It can indicate something that occurred at some
unspecified (and unimportant) time in the past, before now (often used with already,
just, or yet):
Example;
He has left this address.
Have you seen that movie yet?.
With perfect tenses, already emphasizes that the action was finished before
the time we’re discussing.
According to Kent Uchiyama in his book “ English Verb Tense”, there are
only a few times you absolutely need to use present perfect;
(1) “in your life”sentence. This sentence tell about someone’s life from the time a
person was born until now. There are four type of this sentences:
(a) Asking if someone has ever done something in their life.
Example, Have you (ever) lived in London?
(b) Saying that someone has never done something in their life.
Example, I have (never) visited in my grandmother’s house.
(c) Superlatives in someone life
Example, That’s the ugly dogI’ve seen in this area.
(2) Telling how many times someone has done something in their life if it might
happen again.
38 William A. Sabin, The Gregg Reverence Manual, Ninth Edition, (New York:
Mc-Graw-Hill Companies, 2001), p. 247
Example, Halim has eaten hamburger five times.
(3) Stative verbs that has started in the past and have continued until now.
Example, I’ve owned this book since I was little kid40
Based on those statements above, it can be concluded that the present perfect
tense is used to express:
(1) An action with happened at some unknown time in the past.
Examples:
I have already seenthat film. I don’t want to see it again
(It doesn’t matter when I saw it)
(2) An action or activity happened in the past and was repeat over period of time.
Example:
I have eaten Chinese food several times.
She has visited Bali Island twice.
(3) An action happened in the past and the result of the action continues to or is still
true at present.
Example:
I have closed the door.
(The result of the action continues to the present, i.e. now the door is still
close).
(4) An action or state happened in the past and continuous to the present.
Examples:
I have lived in the Jakarta for four years.
(I started to live in Jakarta four years ago and I still live in Jakarta now)
(5) These adverbs are frequently used in present perfect tense: ever, already, yet,
just never.41
Ever means ‘any time’
For example: Have you ever been to the TMII ?
Alreadymeans ‘before now’
40 Kent Uchiyama, English Verbs Tenses,(New York;2006), p. 81
41 Elaine Kirn, et.al., Interaction Grammar 4th Edition, (New York: McGraw-Hill
For example: Have you already been to the TMII?
Yet means ‘up to now’
For example: Have you visited the TMII yet?
Just refers to the very recent past
For example: I have just visited the TMII.
Nevermeans ‘not any time’
For example: I have never visited the TMII.
From the decision above, it mean that the present perfect tense focused on
the action that happened in the past but still has relevance moment in the present. It
is used commonly to show that the action has just been completed, or at least the
effect of the action is still felt at the moment of speaking.
2) Present Perfect Continuous Tense
a) The Meaning of Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Perfect progressive tenses emphasize the length of time an activity is in
progress. The basic reference point is either an implied noun) or a specified time in
the future.42
The present perfect progressive (continuous) is used to describe an event
that started in the past but is still happening in the present. That event in the present
can be a habitual event.43
The Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently.44
Raymond Murphy in his book states that, we use the Present Perfect Continuous
to say how long something has been happening. The action began in the past,
continues in the present (or has just stopped), and may continue into the future (with
time words since, for, all day, all afternoon, every day this year, etc.).45
The present perfect progressive expresses the duration of “activities” and
uses a fairly wide range of verbs, while the present perfect uses only stative verbs
with since and for and expresses duration of “states” rather than “activities.”
In her book “Fundamental English Grammar third edition” Betty Azar
describes the present perfect continues tense with formulation diagram as
below;
Formulation Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Now
09.00 09.30
Past how long Future
The diagram above describes that “Present perfect continuous tense
expresses a situation that began in the past and continues to the present”.46
From the explanation above, the writer states that if there is not time
reference or sense of time reference then it is not Present perfect continuous tense
because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past and it seems
just an on going action at present time which resembles “present Continuous tense.
So the reference of time differentiates between Present perfect continuous tense.
When you want to refer to an action, or an event that originated in the past but is
still on going or incomplete, use the present perfect continuous. Also present perfect
continuous tense is to show that something started in the past and has continued up
until now.
46 Ibid, p.98
b) The Form of Present Perfect Continuous Tense
The Present Perfect Continuous is made by using the present form of the auxiliary verb "have"+past participle of the verb "to be"+-ing form of the main verb ("I have been doing"). To form questions we reverse the order of the pronoun
and "have/has" (Have I, Has he ...?).47 This tense is rarely used in English. In
addition, Raymond Murphy states, “The present perfect continuous simple is
have/has + past participle of the verb “to be” + ing form the main verb.48
This is the explanation about the form of present perfect continuous tense
according to Marcella Frank:
(1) Affirmative statements in the present perfect continuous tense with;
(a) Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + Time
reference
(b) Subject + has been/have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object +
time reference
If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then auxiliary verb “has been” is used after subject in sentence.
If subject is “You, They or plural” then auxiliary verb “have been” is used
after subject in sentence.
Examples;
I have been studying since 3 O’clock
We form regular past participle by adding –ing base verb.
(2) Negative statements in the present perfect continuous tense with;
(a) Subject +”Not” between the Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle)
+ Object + Time reference
(b) Subject + has not been/have not been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing)
+ object + time reference
47 Azar, op cit,p. 48
To make negative sentence, the word “not” is written betwe
