AN ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL RELATIONS AND MEANING
PROPERTIES IN ARTICLES IN THE JAKARTA POST DAILY
NEWSPAPER
A THESIS
BY:
WINDY AGINTA
REG. STUDENT NO: 050705015
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS
UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA
MEDAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, the writer would like to thank to Allah SWT who has given her
all of the blessing, ease and talent, so that the writer can finish her thesis entitled
“An Analysis of Lexical Relations and Meaning Properties in Articles in The
Jakarta Post Daily Newspaper”.
The writer would like to thank to the Dean of Faculty of Letters, Drs.
Syaifuddin, M.A. Ph.D, also to Dra. Swesana Mardia Lubis, M.Hum and Drs.
Yulianus Harefa, MEd TESOL as the Head and Secretary of English Department,
and to Bang Syamsul for all of assistances and facilities that given to her and for
all their attentions in her academic affairs.
The writer would like to express her special thanks to her supervisor Drs.
Umar Mono, M.Hum and her co-supervisor Dra. Roswita Silalahi, Dip. TESOL.,
M.Hum for guiding, giving support, and having shared their ideas, times and
patience. The writer would also like to thank to Drs. Syahri Saja, M.A as her
academic advisor and to all of the lecturers in English Department who taught
much and contributed the knowledge during her academic years.
The writer would like to express her lovely thanks to her beloved parents,
Zulkarnain and Ferry Hermita and her sisters, kak Mia, kak Tina and Winda and
also her big family. Thank you for the great love, supports and prays in her life.
The writer would like to express her special lovely thanks to Aldin
The writer would also like to express her great thanks to all her best
friends, Sinta, Febby, Lili, Mala, Ira, Nida, Irene, Novi, Diana, Kinoy, Mediana,
Sari, Maya, Kiki, Essy, etc. and thank you for love, assistances and supports. The
writer would also thanks to all members of class 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008 that
have given supports.
Last but not least, for all of her friends and people who know her. The
writer would like to apologize for unable to write all of your names, but the writer
hope you always know that you are always be as the important part of her life.
Thank you very much.
Medan, June 2009
ABSTRAK
Skripsi yang berjudul ‘An Analysis of Lexical Relations and Meaning Properties in Articles in The Jakarta Post Daily Newspaper’ ini membahas tentang hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning
Properties) yang terdapat pada artikel-artikel di koran harian The Jakarta Post.
Dalam penulisan skripsi ini, penulis menerapkan studi kepustakaan yaitu dengan mengumpulkan data tentang hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) yang terdapat pada artikel-artikel di koran harian
The Jakarta Post, kemudian menganalisisnya dan menentukan jenis hubungan
leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) yang paling dominan.
Pembagian jenis hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) pada skripsi ini mengacu pada pendapat dari F.R.Palmer (1976) dan Geoffrey Leech (1981) yang membagi hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) menjadi hiponim (hyponyms), meronim (meronyms), homonim (homonyms), sinonim (synonyms) dan antonim (antonyms) dan juga membagi komponen makna (Meaning Properties) menjadi kebermaknaan (meaningfulness), ambigu (ambiguity), berlebihan (redundancy), penyimpangan (anomaly) dan berlawanan (contradictory). Dalam artikel-artikel di koran harian
The Jakarta Post, ditemukan 18 hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) yang
ABBREVIATIONS
Adv. : Adverb
Conj. Adv. : Conjunctive Adverb
Coor. Conj. : Coordinating Conjunction
Cor. Conj. : Correlative Conjunction
DC : Dependent Clause
Freq. : Frequency
IC : Independent Clause
O : Object
P : Predicate
Prep. : Preposition
Punc. : Punctuation
Relative Pr. : Relative Pronoun
S : Subject
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... i
ABSTRACT ... iii
ABBREVIATIONS ... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... v
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ... 1
1.1 Background of the Analysis ... 1
1.2 Problems of the Analysis ... 4
1.3 Objectives of the Analysis ... 5
1.4 Significances of the Analysis ... 5
1.5 Scope of the Analysis ... 5
1.6 Review of Related Literature ... 6
CHAPTER II : THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK ... 8
2.1 Theory of Semantics ... 8
2.2 Goals of Semantics Theory ... 9
2.3 Types of Meaning ... 10
2.4 Lexical Relations ... 13
2.4.1Hyponyms ... 14
2.4.2Meronyms ... 15
2.4.3Homonyms ... 16
2.4.4Synonyms ... 17
2.5 Meaning Properties ... 21
3.1 Research Method ... 42
3.2 Data Collecting Method ... 42
3.3 Data Analysis Procedure ... 42
CHAPTER IV : THE ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL RELATIONS AND MEANING PROPERTIES IN ARTICLES IN THE JAKARTA POST DAILY NEWSPAPER ... 44
4.1 The Existence of Lexical Relations... 44
4.1.1 The Existence of Hyponyms ... 44
4.1.2 The Existence of Meronyms ... 45
4.1.3 The Existence of Homonyms ... 46
4.1.4 The Existence of Synonyms ... 46
4.1.5 The Existence of Antonyms ... 49
4.2 The Existence of Meaning Properties ... 53
4.2.1 The Existence of Meaningfulness ... 53
4.2.2 The Existence of Ambiguity ... 207
4.2.3 The Existence of Redundancy ... 208
4.2.4 The Existence of Anomaly ... 208
4.2.5 The Existence of Contradictory ... 208
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 212
5.1 Conclusions ... 212
5.2 Suggestions ... 213
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 214
APPENDICES: MEANINGFULNESS TYPES OF SENTENCES
ARTICLES IN THE JAKARTA POST DAILY
ABSTRAK
Skripsi yang berjudul ‘An Analysis of Lexical Relations and Meaning Properties in Articles in The Jakarta Post Daily Newspaper’ ini membahas tentang hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning
Properties) yang terdapat pada artikel-artikel di koran harian The Jakarta Post.
Dalam penulisan skripsi ini, penulis menerapkan studi kepustakaan yaitu dengan mengumpulkan data tentang hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) yang terdapat pada artikel-artikel di koran harian
The Jakarta Post, kemudian menganalisisnya dan menentukan jenis hubungan
leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) yang paling dominan.
Pembagian jenis hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) dan komponen makna (Meaning Properties) pada skripsi ini mengacu pada pendapat dari F.R.Palmer (1976) dan Geoffrey Leech (1981) yang membagi hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) menjadi hiponim (hyponyms), meronim (meronyms), homonim (homonyms), sinonim (synonyms) dan antonim (antonyms) dan juga membagi komponen makna (Meaning Properties) menjadi kebermaknaan (meaningfulness), ambigu (ambiguity), berlebihan (redundancy), penyimpangan (anomaly) dan berlawanan (contradictory). Dalam artikel-artikel di koran harian
The Jakarta Post, ditemukan 18 hubungan leksikal (Lexical Relations) yang
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Analysis
“Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Based on the definition, we
may be tempted to think that once we understand the semantics of a language, we
completely understand that language. Meaning, however, involves more than just
the semantic interpretation of an utterance” (Hurford and Heasley, 1983:1).
“Semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning. The
meaning of word is determined by the words arrangements in sentences or other
words” (Palmer, 1976:1).
“Lexical relations are relationship of the meaning of a word to other words”
(Bolinger, 1968:11). “Meaning property is one of several features or component
which together can be said to make up the meaning of a word or utterance”
(Lyons, 1977:57). All of lexical relations and meaning properties can be
differentiated by looking all the words or sentences.
Lexical relations include hyponyms, meronyms (Siregar, 1981:20),
homonyms, synonyms, and antonyms (Palmer, 1976:59). While meaning
properties include meaningfulness, ambiguity, redundancy, anomaly, and
contradictory (Siregar, 1981:29). Those topics will be analyzed in this thesis.
“Hyponymy is a word the meaning of which may be said to be included in
that of another word. Meronymy is a part-whole relationship between lexical
items” (Siregar, 1981:20). “Homonyms are different words which are pronounced
different, but have the same or nearly the same meaning. And antonyms are words
or expressions which are opposite in meaning or two words that express opposing
concepts” (Palmer, 1976:59).
“Meaningfulness means a word or expression that has meaning and neither
anomalous nor contradictory. Ambiguity means a word or sentence that has more
than one sense. Redundancy is the degree to which an expression contains more
information than is needed for it to be understood. Anomaly is an expression
which has an incompatibility of meaning between constituent expressions.
Contradictory means that there is a contradiction of meaning between constituent
expressions” (Siregar, 1981:29).
“Article is a piece of nonfiction writing in a newspaper, magazine or
reference book” (http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/article.html Nov 9th 2008,
8.30 p.m.). The Jakarta Post is the largest English language newspaper in
Indonesia with an average circulation of around 25,000 copies. The head office is
in the nation's capital, Jakarta. It was launched on 25 April 1983 in Jakarta and it
has been existed for 25 years. Articles in The Jakarta Post are chosen as the data
source because it is assumed that there are many lexical relations and meaning
properties existed which are interesting to be analyzed semantically.
Here are some examples of the lexical relations and meaning properties found
1. Antonyms
For examples:
Third, international donors are likely to contribute to domestic democracy
when there are sufficient nascent civil society institutions or fledgling
non-state associations.
(Wednesday, November 5th, 2008)
The words international and domestic refer to antonyms because they have
opposite in meaning. International means happening or existing between two or
more countries. Domestic
2. Synonyms
means that inside a particular country, not foreign or
international.
For examples:
Saturday morning, for Tin Martini, a 65-year old resident of a senior
citizen’s home in Central Jakarta, means the start of a brighter day.
(Tuesday, November 4th, 2008)
This sentence has synonym relation because the words resident and citizen
have similar meaning even though they have different sound. Resident means a
person who lives or has a home in a place, not a visitor. Citizen
3. Homonyms
means a person
who lives in a town or a city.
For examples:
The concentration of risk in one business group results in a too-big-to-fail
hazard, which carries systemic for the entire Indonesian capital market.
The words too and to have same pronunciation: [tu:], but they have
different meaning. The word too here is used before adjective and means to a
higher degree. The word to
4. Contradictory
be a preposition for the special uses in phrasal verbs
that means towards a situation.
For examples:
Today, that mangrove jungle is history.
(Tuesday, November 4th, 2008)
The words today and history have contradiction of meaning because today
is the present time whereas history
1.2 Problems of the Analysis
is past event, something that happens in past
time.
Based on the background, the problems of the analysis are formulated as
follows:
1) What types of lexical relations and meaning properties are found in articles
in The Jakarta Post newspaper?
2) Which type of lexical relations and meaning properties occur the most in
1.3 Objectives of the Analysis
By writing this thesis, some objectives are achieved to answer the problems
of the analysis, they are:
1) To find out the types of lexical relations and meaning properties found in
articles in The Jakarta Post newspaper.
2) To find out which type of lexical relations and meaning properties occur
the most in articles in The Jakarta Post newspaper.
1.4 Significances of the Analysis
Theoretically, this thesis will enrich the study of semantics that can be used
for further reference, especially dealing with lexical relations and meaning
properties.
Practically, this thesis can be used as an additional reference for teaching
semantics and translation.
1.5 Scope of the Analysis
It is very important to limit the analysis and the object of the analysis in
order to get a clear and satisfactory result. Therefore, in this thesis, I would like to
focus only on the lexical relations and meaning properties that exist in 7 (seven)
chosen articles of seven editions (February 8th – February 14th) of The Jakarta
1.6 Review of Related Literature
In analyzing the lexical relations and meaning properties in this thesis, some
related literatures are reviewed in this thesis. They are:
Palmer (1976) in Semantics: A New Outline define semantics, explain goals
of semantics theory and lexical relations.
Siregar (1981) in Semantics: The Study of Meaning explains about
semantics including lexical relations and meaning properties and their
classifications.
Usni (2002) in her thesis entitled “A Semantic Analysis of Meaning
Properties and Meaning Relations in Technical Terms Used in PT. Unilever
Indonesia, Tbk” found that there are 74 cases for meaning properties: 22 cases
(29, 73%) for meaningfulness, 20 cases (27, 03%) for anomaly, 10 cases (13,
51%) for contradictory, 12 cases (16, 22%) for ambiguity, and 10 cases (13, 51%)
for redundancy. There are also 110 cases for meaning relations: 18 cases (16,
36%) for hyponymy, 2 cases (1, 81%) for homonymy, 31 cases (28, 18%) for
polysemy, 36 cases (32, 73%) for synonymy, and 23 cases (20, 91%) for
antonymy.
Simbolon (2003) in her thesis entitled “An Analysis of Meaning Properties
and Relations on Westlife’s Songs” found that there are 51 cases for meaning
properties: 24 cases (47, 05%) for meaningfulness, 8 cases (15, 6%) for anomaly,
4 cases (7, 84%) for contradictory, 10 cases (19, 58%) for ambiguity, and 5 cases
(9, 8%) for redundancy. There are also 43 cases for meaning relations: 7 cases
(16, 27%) for homonyms, 13 cases (30, 23%) for synonyms, and 23 cases (41,
Tiakhiroh (2007) in her thesis entitled “An Analysis of Meaning Properties
in Campbell’s Kingdom by Innes Hommand” found that there are 138 cases for
meaning properties: 94 cases for meaningfulness, 28 cases for anomaly, 7 cases
for contradictory, 3 cases for ambiguity, and 6 cases for redundancy.
Sofiana (2008) in her thesis entitled “The Analysis of Meaning Properties
and Meaning Relations in Saul Bellow’s short story Looking for Mr. Green”
found that there are 136 cases for meaning properties: 112 cases (82, 3%) for
meaningfulness, 12 cases (8, 8%) for ambiguity, 6 cases (4, 4%) for anomaly, 4
cases (2, 9%) for contradictory, and 2 cases (1, 4%) for redundancy. There are
also 34 cases for meaning relations: 13 cases (38, 2%) for antonyms, 11 cases (32,
CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
1.7 Theory of Semantics
Katz (1972:1) says, “Semantics is the study of the linguistic meaning”. It
is concerned with what sentences and other linguistics objects express, not with
the arrangement of their syntactic parts or with their pronunciation.
Kreidler (1983:3) says, “Semantics is the systematic study of meaning, and
linguistic semantics is the study of how language organizes and express
meanings”.
Leech (1981:9) says, “Semantics is the study of meaning is central to the
study of communication, and as communication becomes more and more crucial
factor in social organization, to need to understand it becomes more and more
pressing. Semantics is also at the centre of the study of human mind-thought
process, cognition, and conceptualization. All these are intricately bound up which
we classify and convey our experience of the world through language”.
Lyons (1977:1-2) states that “certain of meaning (or senses) can be
distinguished by technique of substituting other words in the same context and
enquiring whether sentences are equivalent”. For example, intend could be
substituted for mean in I did not mean to hurt you, without changing the total
meaning of the sentence. Theses are various meaning of meaning which can be
used in different ways, such as “What is meaning (significance) of
Palmer (1976:1), states that “Semantics is technical term used to refer to
the study of meaning”. However, this definition has led to question about the
nature of meaning itself and about the way in which it should be described.
Should semantics study all types of meaning? Red, for example, may mean
several things. If we consult the dictionary, we may find that one of its meanings
is ‘of a spectral hue beyond orange in the spectrum’. In the context of traffic light,
red means ‘stop’, ‘do not go through’, while in some other different contexts it
may mean ‘danger’, or even ‘bravery’. Are all these types of meaning treated
under semantics? If we want to make it clear, it is, therefore, necessary to redefine
semantics into a more specific definition, the one that can limit semantics into the
study of more specific type of meaning only. Consequently, we would say that
semantics is the study of meaning of words, phrases, or sentences in the language,
or simply, the study of linguistic meaning.
From those definitions above, semantics can be defined as a branch of
linguistics dealing with meaning of words.
1.8 Goals of Semantics Theory
Semantics theory has two goals, they are:
1. A semantics theory should attribute to each expression in the language the
semantics properties and relations it has and it should define those
properties and relations. Thus, if an expression is meaningful, the
semantics theory should say so, if the expression has a specific sense of
meaning, the semantics theory should specify them. If the expression is
Moreover, if two expressions are synonymous; or are entails the other, the
semantics theory should make those semantics relations.
2. A semantics theory should have at least two kinds of constraints:
a. A semantics theory of a natural language should be finite; people
are capable of storing only a finite amount of information but they
nevertheless learn the semantics of natural languages.
b. A semantics theory of a natural language should reflect the fact,
except for idioms, expressions are compositional. This means that
the meaning of syntactically complex expression is determined by
the meaning of its constituents and their grammatical relations. An
expression such as “He kicked the ball” is compositional and it is
summed up from the meanings of he + kicked + the + ball, while is
very much different from “He kicked the bucket” that is not
compositional and as an idiom meaning “He passed away”.
1.9 Types of Meaning
Leech (1981:19) has proposed seven types of meaning that can be
summarized as follows:
1. Conceptual meaning, i.e. logical, cognitive, or denotative content of the
word. It describes the word by making its own characteristics.
For examples:
a. Woman = (+HUMAN), (-MALE), (+ADULT)
b. Man = (+HUMAN), (+MALE), (+ADULT)
The word woman has the denotative, cognitive, or logical content as
human, it is not male and it is not adult. The word man is human, male and
adult. And the word boy
2. Connotative meaning, i.e. what is communicated by virtue of what
languages refer to. It is based on the feeling and ideas that arisen in the
minds of speakers and hearers.
is human, male, and not adult.
For examples:
a. Woman has the connotation ‘weak’
b. Rose has the connotation ‘a beautiful girl’
3. Social meaning, i.e. what is communicated of the social circumstances of
language use. Certain words have similar meaning but the use of the words
is different according to the social life of the people.
For examples:
a. Abode : is used in poetic language
b. Residence : is used in formal circumstances
c. Home : is used in general circumstances
d. Domicile : is used for very formal and official circumstances.
4. Affective meaning, i.e. what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes
of the speaker or writer. This is used for a polite way of speaking. It shows
the attitude of the speaker or the writer to the hearer or reader.
For examples:
a. Aha! Yippee (Friendly expression)
c. How soon you come here, its nine now. Our promises is at eight
(refers to “why do you come late?”)
5. Reflected meaning, i.e. what is communicated through association with
another sense of the same expression. It caused by multiple conceptual
meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another
sense. A sense of a word makes our response to another sense.
For example:
• Intercourse, ejaculation, and erection
These words make another sense in ‘innocent’ sense because it can conjure
up their sexual associations.
6. Collocative meaning, i.e. what is communicated through association with
words which tend to occur in the environment of another word. It is the
words which are considered to have individual lexical items or share
common group in meaning but may be distinguished in their occurrence.
For examples:
The words pretty and handsome share common group in the meaning good
looking
Woman Boy
Flower Man
PRETTY Girl HANDSOME Car
Boy Overcoat
Garden Airlines
Color, etc. Vessel, etc
, but they can be distinguished by the range of nouns with which
7. Thematic meaning, i.e. what is communicated by the way in which the
message is organizes in terms of order, focus and emphasis. For example,
it is often felt that an active sentence has a different meaning from its
passive equivalent. Although in conceptual content they seem to be the
same.
For examples:
1. Rini gives me a present
2. A present is given to me by Rini
3. I am given a present by Rini
The first sentence is an active sentence and it has a different meaning from
its passive equivalent (the second and third sentences), although in
conceptual content they seem to be the same.
1. Mrs. Angelina Clarkson donated the first prize
2. The first prize was donated by Mrs. Angelina Clarkson
The first sentence is often felt that an active sentence has a different
meaning from its passive (the second sentence) although in conceptual
content they seem to be the same.
1.10 Lexical Relations
Lyons (1977:69) says that “semantics relation is also called sense or
meaning or lexical relation”. It is the relationships of meaning or sense that may
be set up between individual and groups of lexical items. For instance, the
relationship between the words boy and girl is that their meaning or sense are
2.4.6 Hyponyms
Siregar (1981:20) states that “hyponymy is the relationship
between hyponyms”. The term hyponym is derived from Greek’s words
“onyma” means ‘name’ and “hypo” means ‘inclusion’. So, hyponym is the
words include the meaning of the other word. In other words, hyponym is
the inclusion of one word into another word or the inclusion of more
specific term in a more general term.
For examples:
The words goose, lion and fish and animal is related in such a way that
goose, lion and fish and other types of animal. Usually, the specific term
goose, lion and fish are called hyponyms, and the general term animal is
called a super-ordinate. A super-ordinate term can have many hyponyms.
The word bus is a hyponym of vehicle. Further more, the words car, and
lorry are co-hyponyms of vehicle, since each is a hyponym of the same
lexeme, and the word vehicle is super-ordinate of bus, car, and lorry. It
2.4.7 Meronyms
Bolinger (1968:47) states that:
“Meronymy, derived from the root mer- meaning ‘part’ is
a relation in semantics that express the part-whole relation
that lexical items may have. In this relation, the part is
known as the meronym and the whole is called the
holonym. Meronymy is greatly influenced by issues of
normality and prototypically. Language users tend to have
a sense of prototypical meronymic relations – certain
part-whole relations seem to be more normal or salient to us
than others”.
Siregar (1981:20) states that “meronymy is the part-whole
relationships between lexical items”.
For examples:
Face
Forehead Cheek Nose
Hand
2.4.8 Homonyms
Palmer (1976:48) states that “homonyms are different words which
are pronounced the same, but have different meanings”. Traditionally,
homonyms are said to be two or more different words (lexeme) with the
same form, and sometimes sound as another but different in meaning.
Homonyms are words which are identical in form but have more
than one meaning, provide a good example of the opportunities for both
misunderstanding and enrichment of meaning which language continually
presents, and their derivations often provide interesting insights into the
way in which language develops.
For example:
1. She can not bear
The word
children.
bear as in the sentence may be understood to mean “She is
unable to give birth to children” or “She can not tolerate children”. The
word bear the sentence is a verb, but there is another meaning of bear,
that is the animal which is a noun with very different semantics
properties. So, in this case, the word bear
a.
is homonymy.
Homonymy can be distinguished into two terms where the words were
only ‘half’ identical in shape, they are:
Homophony is two or more word which are identical in sound (the
same pronunciation) to one another but different in meaning and
For examples:
1. Flour [flaw∂r] means fine powder made from grain, used for
making bread.
Flower [flaw∂r] means part of a plant that produces seeds, often
brightly colored.
2. Lead [li:d] means metal.
Lead [li:d] means a dog’s lead.
b.
Homography is words which have some spelling but different in
pronouncing and meaning.
For examples: Homography
1. Pupil [pju:pl] means student.
Pupil [pju:pl] means part of the eyes.
2. Live [liv] means to be alive or remain alive.
Live [liv] means having life.
2.4.9 Synonyms
The term synonymy is derived from Ancient Greek “syn” which
means together and “onyma” means name. So synonym means ‘name
together’, i.e. two words or more (together) name the same object, action,
event or quality.
Palmer (1976:44) states that “synonymy is the relationship between
synonyms. Synonyms are words which sound different, but have the same
For examples:
1. He is a foreman
2. He is a
.
supervisor
In the sentences (1) and (2) the words .
foreman and supervisor are
synonyms. The sentence used in predication with the same referring
expression (he) and the predication have the same truth value (workman
supervising others). The words foreman and supervisor
1. She has a
are synonyms;
sentences (1) and (2) are paraphrases to each other.
slim
2. She has a
body.
slender
In the sentences (1) and (2) the words body.
slim and slender
2.4.10 Antonyms
are synonyms. The
sentence used in predication with the same referring expression (she) and
the predication have the same truth value (usually to describe a woman
that has a slight and graceful body).
The word antonyms derived from the Greek ‘anti’ (opposite) and
‘onoma’ (name). Palmer (1976:59) states that “antonyms are words or
expressions which are opposite in meaning or two words that express
a. Complementary Pairs (Binary Taxonomy or Non-gradable)
In this case, the items being complementary to each other. It means the
items belong to the set of incompatible terms. The characteristics of
this kind of antonyms is that negative of one word is synonymous with
the other.
For example:
• Married >< Single
These two words can not be used to refer to the same individual at the
same time. There is only one possibility of the fact, such as in the
sentences John is married or John is single. If married is applicade,
then single is not and vice versa. It means to say John is married is to
say that He is not single. So, to say something is not
b. Gradable Pairs (Binary Polar)
the one is to say
that is the other.
Hurford and Heasley (1972:118) states that two words are gradable
antonyms if they are not opposite end of a continuous scale of values
(a scale which typically varies according to the context of use). It
means that the pairs of words have a graduation of width, age, size,
etc., all indicated by the adjectives. It also means the negative of one
word is not synonymous with the other.
For example:
• New >< Old
If we say not old, it is not necessarily equal with new because when
This kind of gradable pairs can be graded into comparative and
superlative degree by adding the word more or most
• The word
and inflection –er
or –est to the word which are being compared.
For example:
big can be graded into comparative degree bigger or
superlative degree biggest, and the word small can be graded
into comparative degree smaller or superlative degree smallest.
It is also true of gradable pairs that more of one is less of
another such as more bigness is less smaller; wider is less
narrow; and longer is less short
Another characteristic of gradable pairs is that one is marked term and
the other is unmarked them. Marked term means that the term of the
pairs is not so used by the speaker. In the contrary, unmarked term
means that the term of the pairs is commonly used by people in
speaking of their language.
For example:
.
• Master (Unmarked) >< Mistress (Marked)
The marked term Mistress tells us about the meaning of the
unmarked term Master. When we say about Master, we certainly
relate it with male. So, if we want to describe female we must use
the term that reflect a particular meaning like Mistress
c. Relational Opposite (Converse)
.
Hurford and Heasley (1983:118) states that “two words are relational
relationship between two things or people and other word describes the
same relationship, and the two things or people are mentioned in the
opposite order”. It means we can find the relationship between the
opposite pairs of words or two-way contrast that are interdependent
(one number presupposes the other). The relations are characterized in
terms of symmetry, transitivity, and reflexivity.
For examples:
• Parent >< Child
It means that if A is B’s parents, B is A’s child.
• Talk >< Listen
It means that if A talks to B, B listens to A.
Pairs of words ending in –er and –ee in English are usually relational
opposites.
For example:
• If A is B’s employer, then B is A’s employee.
In grammar, active and passive forms are usually relational opposites.
For example:
• If A hits B, B is hit by A.
1.11 Meaning Properties
Lyons (1977:57) states that “semantics property is also called meaning
property or meaning semantics or component. It is one of several features or
component which together can be said to make up the meaning of a word or
2.5.1 Meaningfulness
Siregar (1981:19) states that “meaningful means having meaning
and significance. Any expression of language is meaningful. In order to be
meaningful, an expression must obey the semantics rule of the language as
obeying the syntactic rule alone cannot end up with a meaningful
expression and must represent their meaning”. So, from this statement we
can say that meaningful expression is the word or expression which has
meaning and it is not strange or contradiction.
For examples:
1. Woman means ‘a fully grown human female’.
2. Daughter means ‘female offspring child’.
Those words above are meaningful because they reflect a meaning which
is not strange. So we can conclude that an expression is meaningful if it
specifies or represents its meaning and follow the conventional grammar
of the language.
An expression is called meaningful if it has meaning and it is sensical,
provided it is neither anomalous nor contradictory.
For example:
1. Siti sliced the bread.
2. Siti sliced the idea.
Both expressions (1) and (2) are grammatically right. Semantically, the
expression (1) is right, the meaning of the word Siti, sliced, and the
bread are fit to each other. But there is obviously something wrong
fact that the objects follows it must be a concrete noun, while the word
idea
1. Subject
is an abstract noun, so it is not a concrete noun. The expression
(2) is meaningless because it is anomalous.
Sentences types are part of meaningfulness. But before those topics are
explained, it is very important to explain the parts of one sentence (subject,
predicate, object and adverb). They are:
The subject is one of the two mai
divided into, according to a tradition that can be traced back t
The other constituent is the
sentence, as exemplified by the difference in verb forms between he eats
and they eat.
The subject has the
constituent (a
present in the sentence, i.
The subject is a phrasal constituent, and should be distinguished from
The subject is a noun phrase in the sentence and can be realized by the
following forms
• A
English, this is mostly limited
headed by
• A noun phrase introduced by a determiner. This complex (determiner +
noun phrase) is usually called a
The large car stopped outside our house.
•
respects, for example, in being able to for
For examples:
1. Eating is a pleasure.
2. His constant hammering was very annoying.
• An
For examples:
1. To read is easier than to write. 2. Whom to hire is a difficult question.
• A ful
a subject and a predicate.
That he had travelled the world was known by everyone.
• A direct
I love you is often heard these days.
• The subject can also be implied. In the following command, the subject
is the implied "you" that is the recipient of the
Example:
•
anything or place. For example in the following sentence "it" doesn't
refer to anything. Example:
It rains.
• A
subordinate clause that comes after it. Example:
It was known by everyone (that) he had travelled the world.
Definitions of Subject
The concept of subject is sometimes mixed with that of
and other times with that of
defined as the
the undergoer of the state shown by the predicate. This definition takes the
several reasons. While interpreting the subject as the actor or agent of the
action, two rather different concepts are overlayed. For instance, in the
examples:
1. John was arrested by the police.
2. The police arrested John.
In the first sentence (which is in the passive voice), the subject is
John, while in the second sentence (active voice) it is the police.
But when it comes to the representation the action, the actor in
Similarly, some verbs can be used bot
example of these is the English verb break, for examples:
1. John broke the chain.
2. The chain broke.
In the first sentence, the subject is John, while in the second one it
is the the chain. But in the representation of the action or event, the
chain plays the same role in both cases, that being the one to which
the process is done or happens. This can be seen by considering the
fact that the two sentences can be used to describe the same
happening. Whenever the first sentence is true, the second one will
be true as well, though in the second one it is pictured to have
happened without an agent.
2. Predicate
In traditiona
the simple sentence "John [is yellow]," John acts as the subject, and is
yellow acts as the predicate, a subsequent description of the subject headed
with a verb.
In current
true of something. Thus, the expressions "is yellow" or "is like broccoli"
are true of those things that are yellow or like broccoli, respectively. This
notion is closely related to the notion of a predicate i
includes more expressions than the former one, like, for example
Predicate in English Traditional Grammar
In traditiona
[1] The
predicate must contain
other sentence elements to complete the predicate. These elements are:
objects (direct, indirect, prepositional), predicative’s (aka predicate
complements: subject complements and object complements) and
predicate is underlined. For examples:
1. She dances. (verb only predicate)
2. John reads the book. (direct object)
3. John's mother, Felicity, gave me a present. (indirect object
without a
4. She listened to the radio. (prepositional object)
5. They elected him president. (predicative /object complement)
6. She met him in the par
7. She is in the park. (obligatory adverbial / adverbial
complement)
The predicate provides information about the subject, such as what the
subject is doing or what the subject is like.
The relation between a subject and its predicate is sometimes called a
A Predicate Nominal is
king of England being the Predicate Nominal. The subject and predicate
nominal must be connected by a
A Predicate Adjective is
such as "Abby is attractive", attractive being the Predicate Adjective. The
subject and predicate adjective must be connected by
3. Object
An object in
sentence
subject's "performance" of the
sentence is given:
In the sentence "Bobby kicked the ball", "ball" is the object.
"Bobby" is the
and "ball" is the object involved in the action.
The main verb in the sentence determines whether there can or must
be objects in the sentence, and if so how many and of what type. In many
languages, however, including
different structures; for example, "Bobby kicked" and "Bobby kicked the
ball" are both valid English sentences.
3.4 Types of Object
Objects fall into three classes: direct objects, prepositional objects, and
non-prepositional indirect objects. A direct object answers the question
"What?", while an indirect object answers the question "To whom?" or
otherwise affected participant in the event. There must be a direct object
for an indirect object to be placed in a sentence. Some examples:
1. In "We ate fruit", fruit is the direct object of the verb ate. It
corresponds to the
2. In "They sent him a postcard", him is the (non-prepositional)
indirect object of the verb sent (which uses a double-object
construction). It typically corresponds to the
3. In "We listened to the radio", the radio is the object of the
preposition to, and the prepositional object of the verb listened.
It can correspond to a variety of cases
In many languages, including
can change form slightly
(their
pronouns do have separat
object is indicated strictly by
differently from others in particular languages. In Spanish, for example,
human objects have to get a preposition 'a'. This is calle
3.5 Forms of object
An object may take any of a number of forms, all of them
sense.
Common forms include:
2.
3.
4. A declarative
blond."
5. An interrogative content clause, as in "I remembered why she had
left."
6. A fuse
to do."
4. Adverb
An adverb is a
of language:
other adverbs, except for
4.4 The Five Types of Adverbs
1. Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner provide information
on how someone does something. For example:
• Jack drives very carefully.
2. Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time provide information on
when something happens. For example:
• We'll let you know our decision next week.
3. Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency provide
information on how often something happens. For example:
4. Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree provide information
concerning how much of something is done. For example:
• They like playing golf a lot.
5. Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment provide a
comment, or opinion about a situation. For example:
• Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the
concert.
4.5 Adverb Formation
1. Adverbs are usually formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective. For
examples:
a. quiet - quietly
b. careful – carefully
c. careless - carelessly
2. Adjectives ending in '-le' change to '-ly'. For examples:
a. possible – possibly
b. probable – probably
c. incredible - incredibly
3. Adjectives ending in '-y' change to '-ily'. For examples:
a. lucky - luckily
b. happy – happily
c. angry - angrily
4. Adjectives ending in '-ic' change to '-ically'. For examples:
a. basic – basically
b. ironic – ironically
Some adjectives are irregular. The most common irregular adverbs
are:
a. good – well
b. hard – hard
c. fast –fast
Types of Sentences:
Review:
a. An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.
Example: I wrote my first novel last year
S P O Adv. of Time
b. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete
thought.
Example: After I wrote my first novel last year
S P O Adv. of Time
1. Simple sentence contains one full subject and predicate (also can be
included adverb). For examples:
a. He lives in New York
S P Adv. of Place
b. Please close the door (the subject you is understood)
2. Compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by:
a.
Example:
(IC)
Tom reads novels,(coor. conj.) but (IC) Jack reads comics
b.
Example:
(IC)
Tom reads novels; (conj. adv.)however, (IC)Jack reads comics
c.
Example:
(IC)
Tom reads novels; (IC)his friend reads comics
3. Complex sentence has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating
conjunction, a relative pronoun or punctuation) joined to an independent
clause. For examples:
a. (DC)Although Tom reads novels, (IC) Jack reads comics
b. (IC)Tom is an eight-year old boy (DC)who goes to school in
Philadelphia
4. Compound-complex sentence has two or more independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses. For examples:
a. (DC)While Tom reads novels, (IC)Jack reads comics, but (IC)Sam
reads only magazines
b. (DC)Though the movie had been tested on the market, (IC)The Last
Shadow did not fare well in the United States, but (IC)it did develop
a huge following in Europe, (DC)which usually does not go for this
5. Conjunction
Conjunctions are words used as joiners. Different kinds of conjunctions join
different kinds of grammatical structures. The following are the kinds of
conjunctions:
The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:
4. Subordinating Conjunctions
These words are commonly used as subordinating conjunctions:
• after
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause within a
larger sentence. It is called a relative pronoun because it relates to the
word that it modifies.
A relative pronoun links two clauses into a single complex clause. To
this extent, it is similar in function to a subordinating conjunction. Unlike
Compare:
(1) This is a house. Jack built this house.
(2) This is the house that Jack built.
Sentence (2) consists of two clauses, a main clause (This is the house) and
a relative clause (that Jack built). The word that is a relative pronoun.
Within the relative clause, the relative pronoun stands for the noun phrase
it references in the main clause (its antecedent), which is one of the
arguments of the verb in the relative clause. In the example, the argument
is the house, the direct object of built.
Other arguments can be relativised using relative pronouns:
Subject : Hunter is the boy who kissed Monique.
Indirect object : Hunter is the boy to whom Monique gave a gift.
Adpositional complement : Jack built the house in which I now live.
Possessor : Jack is the boy whose friend built my house.
Not all languages have relative pronouns. Those that do tend to use words
which originally had other functions; for example, the English which is
also an interrogative word. This suggests that relative pronouns might be a
fairly late development in many languages.
In English, different pronouns are sometimes used if the antecedent is a
human being, as opposed to a non-human or an inanimate object (as in
who/that). In some languages, the relative pronoun is an invariable word.
(5) This is a bank. This bank accepted my identification.
(6) She is a bank teller. She helped us open an account.
(7) This is the bank that accepted my identification.
(8) She is the bank teller who helped us open an account.
In sentences (7) and (8), the words that and who are the relative pronouns.
The word that is used because the bank is a thing; the word who is used
because 'she' is a person.
2.5.2 Ambiguity
Siregar (1981:30) states that “an expression is said to be
ambiguous when more than interpretation can be assigned to it”.
Hurford and Heasley (1983:121) state that “a word or sentence is
ambiguous when it has more than one sense. A sentence is ambiguous if it
has two or more paraphrases which are not they paraphrases to each
other”.
For example:
1. We saw her duck
It has two paraphrases, they are:
a) We saw her lower her head
b) We saw the duck belongs to her.
Both of the sentences are not paraphrase of each other, in other words,
these two sentences do not have the same meaning. Therefore, the
sentence, We saw her duck is ambiguous.
a) Grammatical Ambiguity or Structural Ambiguity
In grammatical ambiguity, a sentence is ambiguous because the words
related to each other in different ways. On the other hand, the
ambiguity is structural or grammatical if it is resulted from the way the
constituents are grouped into a larger syntactical unit. The word itself
is not ambiguous, but the combination of those words can be
interpreted into more than one senses and this kind of ambiguity can
be solved by using square brackets.
For examples:
1. Starving children can be dangerous.
It can be ambiguous, they are:
a. The children who are starving can be dangerous.
b. To starve the children can be dangerous.
2. Fresh fruit and vegetables
It can be ambiguous, they are:
a. [Fresh fruit] and vegetables.
b. Fresh [fruit and vegetables].
b) Lexical Ambiguity
Lexical Ambiguity is the word has more than one meaning or if the
ambiguity of the expression is resulted from the polisemous word, i.e.
a word that has more than one meaning. On the other words, lexical
For examples:
1. He goes to the bank
It could mean:
a. He goes to the bank of river.
b. He goes to the bank for deposited some money.
2. He found a bat
It could mean:
a. He found a baseball bat.
b. He found a flying rodent.
2.5.3 Redundancy
Siregar (1981:32) states that “redundancy is the degree to which an
expression contains more information than is needed to be understood.
Redundant words express the same meaning within the same sentence”.
For examples:
a. Cold ice
b. Un-adult child
Those words are redundant since they have been included in the
meaning of ice and child respectively.
There are several types of redundancy which may be observed in writing
or speeches are as follows:
a. Duplication of meaning of nouns
For example:
b. Duplication of meaning of adjectives
For example:
• The hand phone is free gratis.
c. Duplication of meaning of adverbs.
For example:
• I try to do my assignment perfectly without a mistake.
d. Duplication of meaning of verbs.
For example:
• The squirrel stored the food and put it away.
Redundancy also includes repetition of unnecessary lexical items as in:
1. She looks so pretty, beautiful.
2. I am absolutely, positively sure.
2.5.4 Anomaly
Siregar (1981:29) states that “an expression is anomalous when
there is an incompatibility of meaning between constituent expressions.
Anomaly results when the selection features of one member of the
construction are not satisfied by the member in construction with it”.
For examples:
1. I ate three phonemes for my breakfast
This expression seems to obey the syntactic rule but the sentence is
anomaly. The combination of the verb ate and its noun object three
noun three phonemes is no edible. Therefore, the combination of ate
and three phonemes is anomalous.
2. John frightened a tree
Part of the meaning of frightened is that it can not occur only with
animate nouns object. Since we know the meaning of tree, and know
that it is not “animate”, so the sentence is anomalous.
2.5.5 Contradictory
Siregar (1981:30) states that “an expression is called contradictory
when there is a contradiction of meaning between constituent expressions
or the meaning of the subject contains information incompatible with what
attribute to it in the predicate”.
For examples:
1. She drew a baseless triangle.
This statement is contradictory because there is a contradiction of
meaning of the words baseless and triangle. Baseless means without
base or having no base. And triangle means with base.
2. Stewardess is male.
This expression is contradictory because the meaning of the word
stewardess in the fact is female, but in this expression is following by
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Method
Descriptive qualitative method will be used in analyzing the data. It is
applied by giving a description of the lexical relations and meaning
properties that exist in articles in The Jakarta Post daily newspaper.
3.2 Data Collecting Method
The primary source of the study is The Jakarta Post daily newspaper
and the other sources are textbooks, written materials, or references that
related to the topic of my study.
Purposive sampling method is applied as the technique to take the
sample in this study. Nawawi (1991:157) states that this kind of sampling is
conducted by taking the unit of sampling that is appropriate and suitable to
the purpose of the study. Or in other words, the samples were taken by
concerning the purpose of the study.
3.3 Data Analyzing Procedure
The systematic procedures in conducting the analysis are as follows:
1) Reading the chosen articles repeatedly.
2) Identifying the words and sentences which belong to lexical relations
3) Classifying the lexical relations and meaning properties into the more
specific categories, i.e. hyponyms, meronyms, homonyms, synonyms,
antonyms, meaningfulness, ambiguity, redundancy, anomaly, and
contradictory and all the data will be analyzed based on Siregar’s and
Palmer’s theory.
4) Calculating the data in percentage, the lexical relations and meaning
properties that occur mostly in the chosen articles and explain all the
results of the analysis except meaningfulness. The following formula is
applied based on Nawawi’s social analysis method (1991:150):
N Y
X
=
× 100%
X : Number of the subcategories of lexical relations and meaning
properties.
Y : Total number of all data
N : Percentage of lexical relations and meaning properties.
CHAPTER IV
THE ANALYSIS OF LEXICAL RELATIONS AND
MEANING PROPERTIES IN ARTICLES IN
THE JAKARTA POST DAILY NEWSPAPER
4.6 The Existence of Lexical Relations
Lexical relations are divided into hyponyms, meronyms, homonyms,
synonyms, and antonyms. They are:
4.6.1 The Existence of Hyponyms
There are five hyponyms that are found in the seven articles
(February 8th – February 14th) of The Jakarta Post newspaper. They are:
1. “…some ASEAN members – for instance, in Indonesia, the Philippines
and tension between Malaysia and Thailand over the issue…” (Feb. 9th,
par. 5)
2. “For example, the US helped Ford, Chrysler and GM, but not Toyota
and BMW, although the latter…” (Feb. 10th, par. 13)
The explanations:
1. In sentence 1, the specific term Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia and
Thailand are called hyponyms and the general term ASEAN is called
super-ordinate. A super-ordinate can have many hyponyms. And
Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand are hyponyms of ASEAN
2. In sentence 2, the specific term Ford, Chrysler, GM, Toyota and BMW are
called hyponyms and the general term car is called super-ordinate. A
super-ordinate can have many hyponyms. And Ford, Chrysler, GM,
Toyota and BMW are hyponyms of car because they are the brands of car,
as shown in the tree diagram:
4.6.2 The Existence of Meronyms
The results of meronyms are not found in the seven articles of seven
4.6.3 The Existence of Homonyms
The results of homonyms are not found in the seven articles of seven
editions (February 8th – February 14th) of The Jakarta Post newspaper.
4.6.4 The Existence of Synonyms
There are eight synonyms that are found in the fourteen (February 8th – February
14th) of The Jakarta Post newspaper. They are:
1. “…almost the entire male population were killed” (Feb. 8th, par. 1)
“…some 6,000 people were murdered…” (Feb. 8th, par. 11)
2. “…almost the entire male population were killed” (Feb. 8th, par. 1)
“…an estimated 40,000 people were killed and whole islands were
depopulated” (Feb. 8th, par. 11)
3. “Did the ambassador offer apologies, or did he just express regret?” (Feb.
8th, par. 3)
“He offered the Dutch government’s “excuses” for the violence in the
1945-1949 period” (Feb. 8th, par. 3)
4. “Protectionism is something all leaders warn against after the lessons of
the 1930s” (Feb. 10th, par. 5)
“But talking about the need to resist protectionism and actually stopping it
…” (Feb. 10th, par. 6)
5. “…in which he vowed to seek a “new way forward” with the Muslim…”
(Feb. 11th, par. 2)
6. “This is perhaps something Clinton is anxious to hear from the
government in Jakarta” (Feb. 11th, par. 11)
“…but with dialog and listening to each other’s grievances” (Feb. 11th,
par. 24)
7. “There are more obstacles” (Feb. 12th, par. 11)
“Cultural barriers challenges access to Western clients” (Feb. 12th, par.
11)
8. “…their stimulatory impact was replaced by property prices…” (Feb. 14th,
par. 8)
“…about 50 years ago reveals the effect of asset prices…” (Feb. 14th, par. 9)
The explanations:
1. In sentence 1, the words killed and murdered are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word killed means to cause death or cause
somebody or something to die. The word murdered means to kill
somebody illegally and deliberately.
2. In sentence 2, the words entire and whole are synonyms because they have
similar meaning. The word entire means with no part left out; whole;
complete. The word whole means full; complete.
3. In sentence 3, the words apologies and excuses are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word apologies means a word or statement to
say one is sorry for having done something wrong or for upsetting
4. In sentence 4, the words against and resist are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word against means in opposition to somebody
or something; contrary to somebody or something. The word resist means
to oppose a plan, idea, etc.
5. In sentence 5, the words seek and looking for are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word seek means to look for something; to try
to find or get something. The word looking for means to hope for
something; to expect something.
6. In sentence 6, the words hear and listening to are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word hear means to listen or pay attention to
somebody or something. The word listening to means to allow oneself to
be persuaded by somebody making a suggestion, giving advice, etc.
7. In sentence 7, the words obstacles and barriers are synonyms because they
have similar meaning. The word obstacles means a thing that blocks one’s
way or makes movement, progress, etc. The word barriers means a thing
prevents something or makes something impossible.
8. In sentence 8, the words impact and effect are synonyms because they have
similar meaning. The word impact means a strong impression or effect on
something or somebody. The word effect means a change produced by an
4.1.5 The Existence of Antonyms
There are eight antonyms (three complementary pairs, two gradable pairs, and
three relational opposites) that are found in the seven articles (February 8th –
February 14th) of The Jakarta Post newspaper. They are:
a. Complementary Pairs
There are three antonyms of complementary pairs, they are:
1. “…and make their exports more expensive?” (Feb. 10th, par. 25)
“…the blow to workers hurt by rapid import penetration…” (Feb. 10th, par.
34)
2. “…and firms in urban agglomerations more than in the rural areas” (Feb.
12th, par. 14)
3. “In Islam, a fatwa is a legal opinion issued by an individual or group of
ulema…” (Feb. 13th, par. 4)
b. Gradable Pairs
There are two antonyms of gradable pairs, they are:
4. “…offering the a recipe for other countries to do the same to American
companies” (Feb. 10th, par. 14)
“…and actually stopping it are two different things” (Feb. 10th, par. 6)
5. “…and make their exports more expensive?” (Feb. 10th, par. 25)
c. Relational Opposites
There are three antonyms of relational opposites, they are:
6. “In order to answer the questions above…” (Feb. 9th, par. 10)
7. “When you add all this up…” (Feb. 10th, par. 17)
“…that have received government investment to reduce foreign
activities…” (Feb. 10th, par. 15)
8. “It’s no use giving people money to spend if economic rationale tells them
to save” (Feb. 14th, par. 18)
The explanations:
a. Complementary Pairs
1. In sentence 1, the words exports and import are antonyms of
complementary pairs because they are opposite in meaning that the items
being complementary to each other. It means the items belong to the set of
incompatible terms. Its characteristics is that negative of one word is
synonymous with the other. The word exports means to sell and transport
goods to a foreign country. The word import means to bring goods,
services, idea, etc from a foreign country into one’s own country.
2. In sentence 2, the words urban and rural are antonyms of complementary
pairs because they are opposite in meaning that the items being
complementary to each other. It means the items belong to the set of
incompatible terms. Its characteristics is that negative of one word is
a city or town. The word rural means in or suggesting the countryside or
agriculture.
3. In sentence 3, the words individual and group are antonyms of
complementary pairs because they are opposite in meaning that the items
being complementary to each other. It means the items belong to the set of
incompatible terms. Its characteristics is that negative of one word is
synonymous with the other. The word individual means of or for one
person. The word group means a number of people or things gathered,
placed or acting together or naturally associated.
b. Gradable Pairs
1. In sentence 1, the words same and different are antonyms of gradable pairs
because they are opposite in meaning that the pairs of words have a
graduation of width, age, size, etc., all indicated by the adjectives. The
word same means not different; identical. The word different means not
the same as somebody or something.
2. In sentence 2, the words expensive and cheap are antonyms of gradable
pairs because they are opposite in meaning that the pairs of words have a
graduation of width, age, size, etc., all indicated by the adjectives. The
word expensive means costing a lot of money. The word cheap means low
c. Relational Opposites
1. In sentence 1, the words answer and questions are antonyms of relational
opposites because they are opposite in meaning and we can find the
relationship between the opposite pairs of words or two-way contrast that
are interdependent (one number presupposes the other). The word answer
means a thing that is said, written or done as a response to deal with a
question or situation. The word questions means a sentence, etc that asks
information.
2. In sentence 2, the words add and reduce are antonyms of relational
opposites because they are opposite in meaning and we can find the
relationship between the opposite pairs of words or two-way contrast that
are interdependent (one number presupposes the other). The word add
means to put something together with something else so as to increase the
size, number, amount, etc. The word reduces means to make something
smaller in size, quantity, number,etc.
3. In sentence 3, the words spend and save are antonyms of relational
opposites because they are opposite in meaning and we can find the
relationship between the opposite pairs of words or two-way contrast that
are interdependent (one number presupposes the other). The word spend
means to give or pay money for goods, services, etc. The word save means