OBO: Psychology
Entry ID: 9780199828340-0028 Version date: uploaddate Citation style: Scientific
SEXUAL MINORITY PARENTING SEXUAL MINORITY PARENTING SEXUAL MINORITY PARENTING SEXUAL MINORITY PARENTING
Samantha Tornello PhD Candidate University of Virginia
Rachel G. Riskind PhD Candidate University of Virginia
Rachel H. Farr Postdoctoral Scholar
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Introduction Journals
Sexual Minority Focused
Family/Child Development Focused Professional Association Policies
Additional Organizations Supporting Rights of Sexual Minority Parents Books
Empirical Reviews
For Social Scientists
For Practitioners and Policymakers Family Formation
Plans for Parenthood Pathways to Parenthood
Former Heterosexual Relationships Adoption and Foster Care
Experiences of Adoptive Sexual Minority Parents Barriers and Challenges
Reproductive Technologies Donor Insemination Surrogacy
Child Outcomes Early Childhood Middle Childhood
Psychosocial/Intellectual Development Experiences with Heterosexism and Teasing Gender Development
Adolescents and Adulthood
Psychosocial Development
Gender Development and Sexual Orientation
Disclosure of Family Structure by Adolescent and Adults Parenting Dynamics
Division of Labor
Perceived Parenting Ability Parenting Style
Role of Non-Biological Mothers and Men in Lesbian Parent Families Family functioning
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
The study of sexual minority parenting is a relatively new area of study. Throughout this article, we will refer to individuals who are parents and identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or queer (LGBTQ), or those who are parenting with a same-sex partner, as sexual minority parents. Much of the literature in this area comes from psychology, often focusing on the development of children as well as parent experiences in these family systems. We will specify the samples examined in each commentary. First, we will describe journals where this research often appears. Then we will describe policy
statements of United States organizations regarding sexual minority parenting and relevant books in this area of research. Finally, we will review primary areas of interest, such as pathways to parenthood and child development within sexual minority family systems. Overwhelmingly, the research on children reared by sexual minority parents shows no negative consequences of parents sexual orientation on their children s development. Because this research area is less than 30 years old, we will specify many areas needing further research. The material we present can inform general knowledge and is also appropriate for use in undergraduate and graduate classrooms.
Empirical and conceptual peer-reviewed publications regarding sexual minority parenting appear in a variety of journals.
Sexual Minority Focused Sexual Minority Focused Sexual Minority Focused Sexual Minority Focused
Currently, the **Journal of GLBT Family Studies** is the only journal that directly focuses on individual within and around family systems headed by sexual minority individuals. Additionally, journals that discuss sexual minority issues, such as the **Journal of Homosexuality**, the **Journal of Lesbian Studies**, and the **Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services**, sometimes discuss parenting and family issues among sexual minorities.
*Journal of GLBT Family Studies[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792304008]*. Haworth Press publishes this multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal with five issues per year. The journal focuses specifically on topics surrounding family systems of sexual minority individuals.
*Journal of Homosexuality[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t792306897~db=all]*. This multidisciplinary journal covers a range of topics from an array of fields related to sexuality and sexual minority individuals. Routledge Publishing publishes this peer-reviewed journal ten times each year. This is a common avenue for research on sexual minority individuals.
*Journal of Lesbian Studies[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792306903]*. This interdisciplinary journal covers a range of topics surrounding lesbian studies. Routledge Publishing publishes this peer-reviewed journal four times each year. This journal is not family-focused but is a common avenue for discussion of lesbian-specific topics.
*Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social
Services[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~db=all~content=t792304012]*.
This journal examines both empirical and conceptual topics surrounding sexual minority individuals and their social context. Routledge Publishing publishes this journal quarterly. This journal is not directly family-focused but is a common avenue for discussion of this topic.
Family/Child Development Focused Family/Child Development Focused Family/Child Development Focused Family/Child Development Focused
Several additional journals do not focus specifically on sexual minority parenting but focus on children, families, or reproductive health. Research in this area has appeared in such journals as Child
*Child Development[http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0009-3920]*
This multidisciplinary journal covers a range of topics from an array of fields surrounding the topics of child development. Published by Wiley-Blackwell under the flagship of the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD).
*Developmental Psychology[http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/dev/]*
This journal focuses on research and theory regarding development over the lifespan. The American Psychological Association publishes this journal bimonthly.
*Journal of Family Psychology[http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/fam/]*
The American Psychological Association publishes this journal bimonthly. The scope of this journal includes research or theory surrounding topics of family and the family system.
*Adoption Quarterly[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t792303958~db=all]*
Routledge publishes this multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed journal with four issues per year. This journal focuses on topics surrounding policy, ethical, social, and psychological issues regarding adoption.
*Human Reproduction[http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/]*
Peer-reviewed journal, published by Oxford Journals monthly. This journal published articles which cover scientific and medical aspects of reproduction, in the form of research, case studies, and debates on reproductive issues.
PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION POLICIES PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION POLICIES PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION POLICIES PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION POLICIES
Parenting by sexual minority adults remains a controversial topic in the United States and around the world. However, many organizations have issued policy statements supporting the parenting rights of sexual minorities, such as the right to adopt children. Major medical, law, and child welfare organizations in the United States have stated that non-heterosexual parental sexual orientation does not appear to negatively impact parenting quality. Rather, lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents appear to be capable of raising healthy children. Many organizations endorse empirical research showing that parental sexual orientation has no negative impact on children s development, such as the American Psychological Association (see Paige 2005), the **American Academy of Pediatrics**, the **American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry**, and the **American Medical Association**.
DC, and July 28 and 30, 2004, Honolulu, Hawaii, and Minutes of the February, April, June, August, October, and December 2004 Meetings of the Board of Directors. American Psychologist 60: 436-511.
APA has taken a position opposing all discrimination that deprives sexual minority parents of legal rights, benefits, and protections regarding their children. The APA states that no public policy or law should bar sexual minority parents from any of the legal rights of their heterosexual peers.
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health 2002. Policy Statement: *Co-parent or second-parent adoption by same-sex
parents[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/reprint/pediatrics;109/2/339.pdf]*. Pediatrics, 109, 339- 340.
In 2002, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a policy statement supporting the legal recognition of sexual minority parents. The committee states that there is no just reason to deny any parents, regardless of gender, the right to adopt child(ren) into their care. They reaffirmed this policy in February of 2010.
*American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
(AACAP)[http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/policy_statements/gay_lesbian_transgender_and_bisexual_parent s_policy_statement]*. 2008.
The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry states that all parental rights should be based on the best interests of the child. This association denounces the use of parental sexual orientation as a category to deny parental rights.
*American Medical Association (AMA)[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/about-ama/our-people/member-groups-sections/glbt-advisory-committee/ama-policy-regarding-sexual-orientation.shtml]*. 2004.
The American Medical Association has enacted a policy that supports adoption by sexual minority parents. This organization states that there is an array of scientific evidence that sexual minority parents and their children are not different from heterosexual parents and their children in terms of parenting and child development.
Additional Organizations Su Additional Organizations Su Additional Organizations Su
Additional Organizations Supporting Rightspporting Rightspporting Rights of Sexual Minority Parentspporting Rightsof Sexual Minority Parentsof Sexual Minority Parentsof Sexual Minority Parents
*American Anthropological Association (AAA)[http://www.aaanet.org/about/Policies/upload/AAA_-Statement_LGB.pdf]*.
In 1995, the American Anthropological Association adopted the position that discrimination based on sexual orientation would not be tolerated. In 2004, they released a statement stating that they strongly oppose any constitutional amendment limiting marriage to heterosexual couples.
*American Bar Association[http://www2.americanbar.org/sdl/Documents/2004_MY_103D.pdf]*.
The American Bar Association states that children should not be denied a parent based on the parent s sexual orientation. Overall, it is this organization s policy that what is in the best interest of the child should be weighted in custody and adoption cases.
*American Psychiatric
Association[http://www.psych.org/Departments/EDU/Library/APAOfficialDocumentsandRelated/PositionSt atements/200214.aspx]*.
The policy of the American Psychiatric Association supports the recognition of same-sex unions, adoption by sexual minority parents, and co-parenting by same-sex couples, along with all the legal rights, benefits, and responsibilities from these endeavors.
*Child Welfare League of America[http://www.cwla.org/programs/culture/glbtqposition.htm]*.
The Child Welfare League of America supports the notion that same-sex parents are as capable as their heterosexual peers to be parents.
*National Association of Social
Workers[http://www.naswdc.org/resources/abstracts/abstracts/lesbian.asp]*.
The National Association of Social Workers believes that legalization of second-parent adoption should be supported and legislation which denies these rights should be opposed.
BOOKS BOOKS BOOKS BOOKS
More books on sexual minority parenthood enter the market each year. Many provide self-help
information for sexual minority parents as well as personal stories from sexual minority parents (Lev 2004; Mallon 2004) and their children (Garner 1999). Recently, some books have reviewed the empirical
research on sexual minority parenthood (Goldberg 2009; Tasker & Bigner 2007), rather than focusing on narratives or case studies. A complete list of books on sexual minority parenthood is beyond the scope of this bibliography, but we list a few popular choices here.
This book uses a lifespan perspective to review the empirical literature surrounding sexual minority parenting. The author reviews qualitative and quantitative research from multiple disciplines on same-sex couples, transition to parenthood, parenting, and the experiences of children and adults raised by sexual minority parents.
Tasker, F. and Bigner, J. J. 2007. Gay and Lesbian Parenting: New Directions. New York: Haworth. This book is a multidisciplinary examination of the field of sexual minority parenting. The book reviews important research and discusses future directions for the field. It is useful for
professionals in psychology as well as those in other related fields, such as social workers, clinicians, childcare workers, teachers, etc.
Lev, A. I. 2004. The Complete Lesbian and Gay Parenting Guide. New York, New York: The Berkley Publishing Group.
This is a handbook for sexual minority parents and parents-to-be. This book is especially helpful for sexual minority individuals who are thinking about becoming parents. It can help prospective parents understand all of their options and learn about the experiences of similar couples.
Mallon, G. P. 2004. Gay Men Choosing Parenthood. New York: Columbia University Press.
This book is a collection of case studies and interviews of gay fathers from New York and Los Angeles. It is a non-technical book, which makes it an easy read. The book includes examples of the journeys of gay men and their dreams of becoming fathers.
Garner, A. 1999. Families Like Mine: Children of Gay Parents Tell it How it Is. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
This book contains narrative accounts of experiences of adult children who were raised by
lesbian and gay parents. This is a great book for children of sexual minority parents, their parents, and anyone else who is interested in this subject.
EMPIRICAL REVIEWS EMPIRICAL REVIEWS EMPIRICAL REVIEWS EMPIRICAL REVIEWS
Researchers have examined an array of issues surrounding sexual minority parenting and family
systems. Below are specific articles that are comprehensive reviews of the literature or meta-analyses of research in this area. Much of the literature in this area has examined children of sexual minority parents and the experiences of these parents. We list reviews under two major categories, dividing articles into those geared towards social scientists and those geared towards practitioners and policymakers.
For For For
The articles listed here review research on sexual minority parents and their children for audiences of social scientists. Allen and Burrell 1996 and Crowl et al. 2008 conducted meta-analyses that summarized the research to date on sexual minorities and their families. Patterson 2009 provided a helpful and recent overview of the policy and legal issues surrounding sexual minority parenting. Anderssen, et al. 2002 conducted a review of the literature specifically examining outcomes for children with lesbian or gay parents. Finally, Biblarz and Stacey 2010 provided a comprehensive review of the literature in this area, including a helpful table summarizing studies.
Allen, M. and Burrell, N. 1996. Comparing the impact of homosexual and heterosexual parents on children: Meta-analysis of existing research. Journal of Homosexuality 32: 19-35.
Meta-analysis of quantitative research found no differences based on parental sexual orientation regarding parenting styles, emotional adjustment, and sexual orientation of the children.
Crowl, A. L., Ahn, S., and Baker, J. A. 2008. A meta-analysis of developmental outcomes for children of same-sex and heterosexual parents. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 4: 385-407.
Meta-analysis of 19 studies that examined an array of aspects of children s development and parent-child relationships in sexual minority parent families. Children and families are functioning well overall.
Anderssen, N., Amlie, C., and Ytteroy, E. A. 2002. Outcomes for children with lesbian or gay parents. A review of studies from 1978 to 2000. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 43: 335-351.
Peer-reviewed synthesis finding that there were no differences between children of sexual minority parents and those of heterosexual parents with regard to children s sexual orientation, gender role and identity, behavioral adjustment, cognitive functioning, experiences of
stigmatization, and emotional functioning.
Patterson, C. J. 2009. Children of lesbian and gay parents: Psychology, law, and policy. American Psychologist 64: 727-736.
This is a helpful overview of the policy and legal issues that affect sexual minority parents. The review examines issues such as child custody and visitation, adoption and foster care, and legal recognition of same-sex couples. Discusses specific legal cases.
Biblarz, T. and Stacey, J. 2010. How does the gender of parents matter? Journal of Marriage and Family 72: 3-22
relationship quality seems to be more important for child and family outcomes than parent gender.
For For For
For PPPPractitionersractitionersractitionersractitioners and Pand Pand Policymakers and Policymakers olicymakers olicymakers
The articles listed below review research on sexual minority parents and their children for audiences of medical and legal professionals. Greenfeld 2005 briefly reviews this area of research in a concise article intended to inform reproductive health practitioners who work with sexual minority clients. Hunfeld et al. 2002 provides an older but more in-depth review of research in this area, also targeted towards health practitioners. Finally, Redding s 2008 article clearly articulates moral and legal arguments against legal recognition of sexual minority families and summarizes psychological research that might inform such decisions. He concludes that the law should legally recognize families with sexual minority parents. This article appeared in a legal journal and is targeted towards an audience of lawyers and policymakers.
Greenfeld, D.A. 2005. Reproduction in same-sex couples: Quality of parenting and child development. Obstetrics and Gynecology 17: 309–312.
Peer-reviewed review article intended for an audience of reproductive health practitioners. Many same-sex couples are pursuing parenthood, often with the help of assisted reproductive
technologies. Although few published studies have included gay fathers and their children, evidence suggests that children and adolescents raised by sexual minority couples are developing well.
Hunfeld, J. A. M., Fauser, B. C. J. M., de Baufort, I. D., and Passchier, J. 2002. Child development and quality of parenting in lesbian families: No psychosocial indications for a-priori withholding of infertility treatment. A systematic review. Human Reproduction Update 8: 579-590.
Article intended for reproductive health practitioners. Concludes that parenting quality and child psychosocial adjustment in families headed by lesbian mothers is similar to those in families headed by two heterosexual parents. Implies that refusing infertility treatment to lesbian prospective mothers on the basis of children s interests would be unwarranted.
Redding, R. E. 2008. It's really about sex: Same-sex marriage, lesbigay parenting, and the psychology of disgust. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 15: 127-193.
FAMILY FORMATION FAMILY FORMATION FAMILY FORMATION FAMILY FORMATION
The articles listed below review research on several aspects of family formation, including plans for parenthood and pathways to parenthood, such as adoption, foster care, donor insemination, and surrogacy. This body of research addresses legal, social, and psychological barriers to parenthood as well as psychological processes and decision-making across the transition to parenthood among members of sexual minorities. Patterson and Riskind 2010 provide a review of research on family formation among sexual minority adults. We provide specific information about the resources in each section in commentaries below each sub-heading.
Patterson, C. J. and Riskind, R. G. 2010. To be a parent: Issues in family formation among gay and lesbian adults. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 6: 199-213.
Review of research on family formation among sexual minority adults. Discusses numbers of sexual minority parents, possible changes in pathways to parenthood, and plans for parenthood among childless sexual minority individuals.
Plans for Plans for Plans for
Plans for PPPParenthood arenthood arenthood arenthood
Few studies have addressed plans for parenthood among sexual minorities. Gartrell et al. 1996, Gianino 2008, and Bos 2003 all studied retrospective reports of desire for parenthood among sexual minority adults who had achieved parenthood. These retrospective reports may be of most interest to those who are interested in the wantedness of parenthood among those who have achieved it. Sbordone 2003, D Augelli et al. 2006/07, Gates et al. 2007 and Riskind and Patterson 2010 studied desires, expectations, and intentions to become parents among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adults. These studies may be of most interest to those seeking to understand discrepant rates of parenthood between
heterosexual and sexual minority adults. The studies by Gates et al. 2007 and Riskind and Patterson 2010 are based on nationally representative U.S. data, while the study by Bos 2003 is based on a Dutch sample; the others included here are based on convenience or snowball U.S. samples. Lastly, Rabun and Oswald 2009 explored some of these issues in more depth and included a younger participant sample.
Gartrell, N., Hamilton, J., Banks, A., Mosbacher, D., Reed, N., Sparks, C. H., and Bishop, H. 1996. The national lesbian family study: 1. Interviews with prospective mothers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 66: 272- 281.
Gianino, M. 2008. Adaption and transformation: The transition to adoptive parenthood for gay couples. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 4: 205- 243.
Qualitative study of 8 upper-middle-class male couples who had adopted children. Participants retrospectively reported that they had strong desires to parent but did not always expect it to happen, due to logistic barriers and internalized stigma. Some reported experiences of antigay or anti-male bias during and after adoption.
Bos, H.M.W., van Balen, F., and van den Boom, D.C. 2003. Planned lesbian families: Their desire and motivation to have children. Human Reproduction 18: 2216-2224
Quantitative study of Dutch families: 100 with two lesbian mothers, and 100 with two heterosexual parents. Lesbian mothers had become parents after coming out as lesbians. Lesbian mothers in this study retrospectively reported stronger desire for parenthood and more time spent thinking about motivations for parenthood than did their heterosexual peers.
D'Augelli, A.R., Rendina, H.J., Sinclair, K.O., and Grossman, A.H. 2006/07. Lesbian and gay youth's aspirations for marriage and raising children. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 1: 77-98.
Quantitative study of 133 sexual minority adolescents living in New York City. Many reported that future long-term relationships were extremely important, and a majority expected monogamy. Many males and a majority of females reported that they were very likely to marry. A large majority reported that they expected to become parents.
Riskind, R.G. and Patterson, C.J. 2010. Parenting intentions and desires among childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual individuals. Journal of Family Psychology 24: 78-81.
Quantitative, nationally representative study of 294 childless lesbian, gay, and heterosexual individuals. Gay men and lesbians were less likely than matched heterosexual peers to report desire for parenthood. Gay men who did so were less likely than matched heterosexual men to express the intention to fulfill these desires.
Gates, G. J., Badgett, M. V. L., Macomber, J. E., and Chambers, K. *Adoption and foster care by gay and lesbian parents in the United States[http://repositories.cdlib.org/ccpr/olwp/CCPR-065-07]*. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, University of California at Los Angeles. 2007.
Quantitative report of nationally representative data (U.S. Census, National Survey of Family Growth, Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System). Many lesbians and gay men are parents or report the desire to become parents. Sexual minority parents raise 4% of adoptees in the U.S. and 3% of U.S. foster children.
Quantitative dissertation comparing 78 gay fathers to 83 gay non-fathers. Reports of childhood relationships with parents and intimacy and autonomy in families of origin were similar across groups. Fathers reported higher self-esteem and lower internalized stigma than did non-fathers. Self-esteem and internalized stigma were unrelated to parenting desires among non-fathers.
Rabun, C. & Oswald, F. R. 2009. Upholding and expanding the normal family: Future fatherhood through the eyes of gay male emerging adults. Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers, 7: 269-285
Qualitative interviews with 14 childless gay men aged 18 to 25 years who intended to become fathers. Themes included concerns that children would be teased, realizations that gay and father identities are not mutually exclusive, importance of biological ties, support from friends and family, and legal barriers.
PATHWAYS TO PARENTHOOD PATHWAYS TO PARENTHOOD PATHWAYS TO PARENTHOOD PATHWAYS TO PARENTHOOD
Some lesbian and gay adults marry a heterosexual partner, have children, and only later came out as lesbian and gay. Others come out at a younger age and become parents in the context of pre-existing non-heterosexual identities. Those who come out earlier often consider a wider variety of routes to parenthood than did their older peers who came out later in life. Some have explored adoption or foster care arrangements, and an increasing number of lesbians are using reproductive technologies, such as donor insemination, to become parents. Some gay men have become fathers via surrogacy, in which a woman agrees to carry the child whose parents will be a gay man or male couple. Pathways to
parenthood for sexual minority individuals vary in structure.
Former Former Former
Former HHHHeterosexual eterosexual eterosexual eterosexual RRRelationships Relationships elationships elationships
Before the availability of reproductive technologies and adoption for sexual minority parents, many had children in the context of a former heterosexual relationship. These individuals would often get married, have children, and later realize that they were lesbian, gay, or bisexual. Patterson and Tornello 2011 examined pathways to parenthood of gay fathers, in the U.S. and internationally, in relation to fathers generational cohort. Much of the limited research in this area was conducted in the 1980s, and this line of research has greatly decreased in recent years. Overall, research regarding this pathway to parenthood had focused on different aspects of the family system, such as child development. These topics will review articles which overlap with this area.
Patterson, C.J. and Tornello, S. L. 2011. Gay fathers pathways to parenthood:
Study of 102 gay fathers from four primarily English-speaking countries, outside the US compared to a group in the U.S. Men under 50 years of age were more likely to achieve parenthood through adoption, foster care, or surrogacy than were men over the age of 50.
Adoption Adoption Adoption
Adoption and and and and Foster Care Foster Care Foster Care Foster Care
Increasing numbers of sexual minority adults have adopted children, and many more have expressed a desire to do so (see Gates et al. 2007, cited in *Plans for Parenthood*). Although adoptive families headed by sexual minority parents are a reality, there is continued controversy surrounding the adoption of children by sexual minority adults across the United States and across many other areas around the world. Variable laws, policies, and practices abound in managing the adoption of children by sexual minority adults, and the lack of clear policies and laws creates challenges for adoptive families with sexual minority parents and all those who work with them. A growing body of research regarding the adoption of children by sexual minority parents has begun to address debates about the adoption of children by sexual minority adults. Research results also influence policies and practices regarding adopted families and professionals working with them. Future research in this area will yield helpful information for adoptive families, policymakers, adoption professionals, and practitioners.
Experiences of Adoptive Sexual Minority Parents
Although adoption by sexual minority adults remains controversial in many places around the world, there are growing numbers of adoptive families headed by sexual minority parents. Gates et al. 2007 indicate that sexual minority adults are raising 4% of all adopted children in the United States, and more than two million sexual minority adults report interest in adopting children. Sexual minority adoptive parents appear to share similar demographic characteristics with heterosexual adoptive parents, such as older age, high educational attainment, high socioeconomic status, and predominantly White racial identity (Gates et al. 2007; Farr & Patterson 2009; Goldberg 2009a). A number of studies, such as those by Goldberg et al. 2009, Goldberg 2009b, and Goldberg and Smith 2009, have focused on the experiences of lesbian preadoptive couples. Mallon 2000, Downing et al. 2009, Goldberg 2009a and Farr and Patterson 2009 describe the experiences of gay adoptive fathers, as well as lesbian and heterosexual adoptive parents. Sexual minority parents who pursue adoption may be motivated to do so for similar or different reasons as heterosexual parents.
Gates, G. J., Badgett, M. V. L., Macomber, J. E., & Chambers, K. 2007. Adoption and foster care by gay and lesbian parents in the United States. Los Angeles: The Williams Institute, University of California at Los Angeles.
sample, researchers found that a sizable minority of sexual minority parents are currently raising adopted children (4%) and foster children (3%) in the United States.
Mallon, G. P. 2000. Gay men and lesbians as adoptive parents. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services 11: 1-22.
This qualitative study of sexual minority adoptive parents found that sexual minority adults adopt through private agencies or private arrangements with birthmothers, and that they adopt for reasons that are both similar to and different from heterosexual adults.
Downing, J., Richardson, H., Kinkler, L., and Goldberg, A.E. 2009. Making the decision: Factors influencing gay men s choice of an adoption path. Adoption Quarterly 12: 247–271.
Qualitative study of 32 gay male couples pursuing adoption. Participants reported choosing an adoption path based on children s likely age, race, and health, the expected length of wait, finances, legal restrictions, concerns about or desire for birth parent involvement, and/or a desire to work with a gay-friendly agency.
Goldberg, A. E., Downing, J. B., and Richardson, H. B. 2009. The transition from infertility to adoption: Perceptions of lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples. Journal of Social & Personal Relationships 26: 938-963.
Qualitative study of 30 lesbian and 30 heterosexual childless couples who attempted conception and then pursued adoption. Lesbians reported less commitment to biological parenthood and easier transitions to adoption. Across couple type, many reported that infertility led to stress and depression, while others reported that the experience strengthened their communication skills.
Goldberg, A. E. 2009a. Heterosexual, lesbian, and gay preadoptive parents preferences about child gender. Sex Roles 61: 55-71.
Mixed-method nationwide study of 61 lesbian, 48 gay, and 93 heterosexual preadoptive couples. Gender preferences for adopted children were most common among gay men and heterosexual women. Heterosexual couples were more likely than sexual minority couples to prefer girls. Gender socialization concerns were related to gender preferences among sexual minority couples.
Goldberg, A. E. 2009b. Lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples openness to transracial adoption. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 79: 103-117.
Explanations for openness or resistance included levels of community diversity, family support, desire to not be overly selective, and consideration of challenges.
Goldberg, A. E. and Smith, J. Z. 2009. Predicting non-African American lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples openness to adopting an African American child. Family Relations 58: 346-360.
Qualitative study of 48 lesbian and 65 heterosexual non-African American couples waiting to adopt. Participants who were younger, White (rather than non-African American racial minorities), lesbian, and who perceived their neighborhoods as more diverse were more likely to report willingness to adopt an African American child.
Farr, R.H. and Patterson, C.J. 2009. Transracial adoption by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents: Who completes transracial adoptions and with what results? Adoption Quarterly 12: 187-204.
Study of 106 lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive couples. Transracial adoptions were more common among sexual minority and interracial couples than among heterosexual and same-race couples, respectively. Child-centered reasons for adoption were associated with more transracial adoptions. Child and parent adjustment did not vary, however, with transracial adoptive status.
Barriers and Challenges
Although all prospective adoptive parents progress through a series of steps towards adoption, including a thorough application process, training and workshops for prospective parents, and a home study, sexual minority parents may face an additional set of challenges and barriers. Kaye and Kuvalanka 2006 and Ryan et al. 2004 indicate that sexual minority parents are not welcome to adopt children in all states in the United States. Moreover, Brodzinsky, et al. s 2002 study demonstrates that not all adoption agencies are open to working with sexual minority applicants. In studies by Downs and James 2006 and Mallon 2007, it has become clear that sexual minority parents frequently encounter discrimination from adoption agencies and their staff. Brooks and Goldberg 2001, as well as Mallon 2007, note that sexual minority prospective adoptive parents face greater barriers to adopting children as a result of informal agency practices, agency attitudes, and a lack of clear policies regarding sexual minority adoption. Ryan 2000 found that homophobic attitudes among adoption social workers can be changed with education and training. Ryan and Whitlock s 2007 study of sexual minority adoptive parents suggests that despite facing bias in the adoption process, sexual minority parents feel positive about their adoption
experiences.
Kaye, S. and Kuvalanka, K. *State gay adoption laws and permanency for foster youth. Maryland Family Policy Impact
Brief policy report reviewing adoption laws and policies in the U.S. In states where adoption laws excluded sexual minority parents, more children remained in foster care. States with more gay-friendly laws had fewer children in foster care.
Brodzinsky, D.M., Patterson, C.J., and Vaziri, M. 2002. Adoption agency perspectives on sexual minority prospective parents: A national study. Adoption Quarterly 1: 43-60.
This study was a survey of adoption agency policies toward sexual minority parents. Of 369 public and private adoption agencies throughout the United States, 60% of reporting agencies have accepted applications from sexual minority prospective adoptive parents, and 40% have placed children with sexual minority parents.
Ryan, S.D., Pearlmutter, S., and Groza, V. 2004. Coming out of the closet: Opening agencies to gay and lesbian adoptive parents. Social Work 49: 85-95.
A review and policy article regarding the discrimination that sexual minority adults face throughout the adoption process. Describes recommendations for adoption agencies and professionals to help them work with sexual minority parents and work for the best interests of children.
Downs, A. C. and James, S. E. 2006. Gay, lesbian, and bisexual foster parents: Strengths and challenges for the child welfare system. Child Welfare Journal 85: 281-298.
Qualitative study of 60 lesbian, gay, and bisexual foster parents feelings of successes and challenges. Participants noted their satisfaction in their role as foster parents but also described barriers, such as discrimination, in their communication with the child welfare system.
Brooks, D. and Goldberg, S. 2001. Gay and lesbian adoptive and foster care placements: Can they meet the needs of waiting children? Social Work 46: 147-157.
In focus groups with adoption professionals and adoptive and foster parents, sexual minority adults reported more obstacles to adopting or fostering than did heterosexual adults – including negative agency attitudes and beliefs about sexual minority parenting and few formal policies about placement with sexual minority parents.
Mallon, G. P. 2007. Assessing lesbian and gay prospective foster and adoptive families: A focus on the home study process. Child Welfare 86:67-86.
Ryan, S. 2000. Examining social workers placement recommendations of children with gay and lesbian adoptive parents. Families in Society 81: 517-528.
In a survey of 80 adoption social workers, African American identity and Christian upbringing were associated with greater homophobia and lower likelihood of recommending placement with sexual minority parents. These attitudes improved with training about lesbian- and gay-parent families and state adoption laws.
Ryan, S. D. and Whitlock, C. 2007. Becoming parents: Lesbian mothers adoption experience. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services 19: 1-33.
This qualitative study explored the adoption experiences of 96 lesbian mothers. Interview questions included their sources of information, consultation, and possible bias, adoption costs and timeframes, and their satisfaction with the process. Although the majority of participants admitted experiencing some bias, they also reported positive experiences and overall satisfaction.
Unique Strengths
In debates about whether sexual minority adults should be able to adopt children, some have raised questions about the appropriateness or suitability of sexual minority parents adopting and rearing children. Research on adoptive families headed by sexual minority parents is increasing, and results to date have consistently shown that sexual minority adoptive parents make capable parents. Some studies have pointed to the unique strengths that sexual minority adults might offer as adoptive parents. In studies comparing sexual minority and heterosexual adoptive couples, Goldberg and Smith 2008 and Kindle and Erich 2005 have found that sexual minority couples who adopt children enjoy similar levels of social support as do heterosexual couples who adopt. In a qualitative study about sexual minority adoptive parents, Brown et al. 2009 noted that sexual minority adoptive parents often experience unanticipated support from their families and community. In a study simultaneously exploring the experiences of lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive couples, Goldberg et al. 2010 found that the same predictors of relationship quality for heterosexual couples apply to sexual minority couples across the transition to parenthood. Gay male couples might be at an advantage, since women reported the greatest declines in love, and those in relationships with women reported the greatest ambivalence (Goldberg et al. 2010).
Goldberg, A. E. and Smith, J. Z. 2008. Social support and psychological well-being in lesbian and heterosexual preadoptive couples. Family Relations 57: 281-294.
wellbeing and social support from friends did not differ by couple type. Past attempts to conceive via in-vitro fertilization were associated with depression.
Goldberg, A. E., Smith, J. Z., and Kashy, D. A. 2010. Pre-adoptive factors predicting lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples relationship quality across the transition to adoptive parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology 24: 221-232.
Quantitative study of 44 lesbian, 30 gay male, and 51 heterosexual couples across first year of adoptive parenthood. All couple types reported declines in relationship quality. Women reported steeper declines in love. Those partnered with women reported the most ambivalence.
Brown, S., Smalling, S., Groza, V., and Ryan, S. 2009. The experiences of gay men and lesbians in becoming and being adoptive parents. Adoption Quarterly 12:226-246.
Qualitative study of 182 sexual minority adoptive parents about their adoption experiences, focusing on challenges, successes, and joys. Participants noted that they had faced
discrimination and had few role models, but they also had received unanticipated support from extended family and community.
Kindle, P. A. and Erich, S. 2005. Perceptions of social support among heterosexual and homosexual adopters. Families in Society 86: 541-546.
Examined social support among 47 sexual minority and 25 heterosexual adoptive parents. Results indicated no differences in overall levels of family support. Heterosexual adoptive parents relied more on family, but sexual minority adoptive parents did not rely more on friends to
compensate.
Reproductive Reproductive Reproductive
Reproductive TTTTechnologiesechnologiesechnologiesechnologies
The articles listed in the subsections that follow review psychological research on families formed through *donor insemination* and *surrogacy*, two routes to parenthood that can occur with the assistance of reproductive technologies. Donor insemination occurs when a man donates sperm to a woman who wishes to conceive and is not his sexual partner. Surrogacy occurs when a woman intentionally gestates and gives birth to a child whose biological father is not her sexual partner. In some cases, the surrogate is not the genetic mother of the child; with medical assistance, a man might fertilize the egg of a second woman and then place this egg in the surrogate s womb. Therefore, it is possible for a child conceived through surrogacy to have a genetic mother in addition to a birth mother and a biological father; both the genetic mother and the birth mother are biological mothers. We provide specific information about the resources in each section in commentaries below each sub-heading.
Each of the articles listed below contributes information about lesbians who conceived or planned to conceive through donor insemination, and in some cases, their children. Donovan 2000 provides a British, sociological perspective on donor choice and biological father involvement. Baetens and Brewaeys 2001 reviewed the social science research on children born to lesbian mothers that was available at the beginning of the 21st century; their article may be most useful for health care providers interested in counseling lesbian couples. Vanfraussen et al. 2001 explored child and lesbian mother attitudes towards donor anonymity in a Belgian sample. This may be of interest to parents choosing between known or unknown donors as well as readers who contribute to reproductive health policies. Chabot and Ames 2004 provide the most in-depth discussion of key decisions lesbian mothers pursuing donor insemination must face. Steeleet al. s 2008 article describes mental health needs of Canadian non-heterosexual women pursuing parenthood and is likely to interest mental and reproductive health
practitioners who want to improve their services. Finally, two studies deal with disclosure of donor insemination and parental sexual orientation to children: Jadva et al. 2009 examined the impact of telling children the details of their conception. Stevens et al. 2003 found in interviews with lesbian mothers that the majority of these mothers children (5-9 years of age) had learned of their parents sexual orientation and their conception.
Baetens, P. and Brewaeys, A. 2001. Lesbian couples requesting donor insemination: an update of the knowledge with regard to lesbian mother families. Human Reproduction Update 7: 512-519.
Review of quantitative research regarding assumptions about lesbian parents. Includes
discussion of reproductive health counseling for lesbian couples, as opposed to single adults or heterosexual couples. Targeted towards reproductive health providers.
Chabot, J.M. and Ames, B. D. 2004. It wasn t let s get pregnant and go do it : Decision making in lesbian couples planning motherhood via donor insemination. Family Relations 53: 348-356.
Qualitative study of interviews and support group meetings with 20 lesbians who pursued donor insemination. Themes included desire for parenthood, searches for information, choosing a pathway to parenthood, choosing a biological mother, language used to refer to each mother, and the negotiation of lesbian motherhood in a heterocentric world.
Donovan. Who needs a father? Negotiating biological fatherhood in British lesbian families using self-insemination. Sexualities 2000 3:149-164.
Steele, L.S., Ross, L.E., Epstein, R., Strike, C., and Goldfinger, C. 2008. Correlates of mental health service use among lesbian, gay, and bisexual mothers and prospective mothers. Women & Health 47: 1-19
Quantitative study of 64 Canadian lesbian and bisexual women who were trying to conceive, pregnant, or new parents. Almost one of every three women reported that their needs for mental health services had recently gone unmet. Almost one of every four women reported that mental health providers assumed they were heterosexual.
Vanfraussen, K., Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, I., and Brewaeys, A. 2001. An attempt to reconstruct children's donor concept: A comparison between children's and lesbian parents' attitudes towards donor anonymity. Human Reproduction 16: 2019-2025.
Qualitative study of 41 Belgian children and adolescents conceived through donor insemination and their 45 lesbian mothers. Roughly half of the children reported curiosity about their donors. Boys were more likely than girls to express curiosity about the donor s identity. Mothers were less likely than children to report curiosity.
Jadva, V., Freeman, T., Kramer, W., & Golombok, S. 2009. The experiences of adolescents and adults conceived by sperm donation: Comparison by age of disclosure and family type. Human Reproduction 24:1909- 1919.
Researchers compared individuals conceived by sperm donation by family type. Lesbian mothers told their children the details of their conception at a much younger age, compared to single heterosexual mothers. Those who found out at an older age reported a more negative reaction towards the disclosure.
Stevens, M., Perry, B., Burston, A., Golombok, S., and Golding, J. 2003. Openness in lesbian- mother families regarding mother s sexual orientation and child s conception by donor insemination. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 21: 347- 362.
Interviews with 38 lesbian mothers of children 5-9 years of age revealed that the majority had disclosed their sexual orientation to their children. All children who were aware of parents sexual orientation or their own conception responded positively.
Surrogacy
gestational surrogacy, a woman who will not be the surrogate donates an egg. This egg is then fertilized by donor sperm and implanted in the womb of a surrogate mother who will gestate the fertilized egg. In this situation, the surrogate has no genetic connection to the child. Nakash and Heirdiman 2007 reviewed cultural and legal differences across the world regarding the use of surrogacy, but they did not address sexual orientation. Greenfeld 2007 described the desire of gay couples to have children and the ethics of supporting these patients, in an article for reproductive health practitioners. MacCallum et al. 2003 interviewed heterosexual parents, and Mitchell and Green 2007 asked sexual minority parents why they chose surrogacy and about their experiences with the surrogacy process. Lastly, Bergman et al. 2010 are the only researchers to date to specifically examine the transition to parenthood for gay fathers who became parents using surrogacy. Information in this area is sparse, and future research in this area is sorely needed.
Nakash, A. and Heirdiman, J. 2007. Surrogacy. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 27: 246- 251. [doi:10.1080/01443610701194788]
This article is a helpful overview of cultural and legal issues surrounding surrogacy in several countries: USA, Canada, Australia, Japan, Russia, and some European countries.
Greenfeld, D.A. 2007. Gay male couples and assisted reproduction: should we assist? Fertility and Sterility 88: 18-20.
Peer-reviewed review article intended for an audience of reproductive health practitioners. Many gay men are interested in becoming parents, and some will do so through surrogacy. These fathers are highly motivated, but some fertility centers have reported that they do not welcome gay male patients.
MacCallum, F., Lycett, E., Murray, C., Jadva, V., and Golombok, S. 2003. Surrogacy: The experience of commissioning couples. Human Reproduction 18: 1334-1342. [doi:10.1093/humrep/deg253]
Qualitative study of 42 heterosexual parents who were interested in having a child through surrogacy. Addressed motivations to use surrogacy, experiences with the surrogacy process before and after the child s birth, and disclosure to others regarding the surrogacy process.
Mitchell, V. and Green, R. 2007. Different storks for different folks: Gay and Lesbian parents experiences with alternative insemination and surrogacy. Journal of GLBT family studies 3: 81-104. (doi:
10.1300/J461v03n02_04)
Bergman, K., Green, R., Padron, E., and Rubio, R.J. 2010. Gay men who become fathers via surrogacy: The transition to parenthood. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 6: 111-141.
This study examined the transition to parenthood of 40 gay male couples who had children through the use of gestational surrogacy. After becoming parents, fathers reported increased closeness to family members, increased romantic and personal intimacy with their partners, and decreased closeness with friends without children.
CHILD OUTCOMES CHILD OUTCOMES CHILD OUTCOMES CHILD OUTCOMES
Debates surrounding sexual minority parenting have often centered on the development of children with sexual minority parents. Some have raised questions about whether sexual minority adults can provide their children with adequate parenting, appropriate role models, and effective socialization, particularly in terms of gender development and sexual identity. Research has addressed these questions, and the literature has been clear: children with sexual minority parents develop similarly to their peers with heterosexual parents in terms of psychological adjustment, gender development, cognitive abilities, socioemotional development, relationships with peers, and sexual orientation and identity. Further information about child outcomes is available in the *empirical reviews* section.
Early Childhood Early Childhood Early Childhood Early Childhood
Researchers examining early childhood development among children with sexual minority parents have often focused on behavioral adjustment. In a national, longitudinal study of lesbian mothers who had used donor insemination to have children, Banks et al. 2000 found that lesbian mothers had no concerns about their five-year-old children s health, development, or peer relationships. In a study comparing the
development of young children adopted by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples, Farr et al. 2010 found that all children on average were reported to have few behavior problems. There were no differences in children s behavioral adjustment as a function of parental sexual orientation. Children s gender
researchers found that children with lesbian mothers had less traditional beliefs about gender and less gender-stereotypical bedroom d‘cor than did children with heterosexual parents, but the degree to which children s environments were gender-stereotyped mediated child and parent attitudes (Sutfin et al. 2008). In sum, as with other studies of children reared by sexual minority parents, young children appear to develop similarly to their peers reared by heterosexual parents.
Banks, A., Deck, A., Gartrell, N., Hamilton, J., Reed, N., and Rodas, C. 2000. The national lesbian family study: 3. interviews with mothers of five-year-olds. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70: 542-548.
Interviews with lesbian mothers who had conceived children through donor insemination. Most mothers had no concerns about their children s health, development, or peer relationships. The majority of families were functioning well. Those who were not had experienced stressors such as death, divorce, or illness in the family since the last interview.
Farr, R. H., Forssell, S. L., and Patterson, C. J. 2010. Parenting and child development in adoptive families: Does parental sexual orientation matter? Applied Developmental Science 14: 164-178.
This study of 106 adoptive families with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents revealed no significant differences in preschool-age children s gender development as a function of parental sexual orientation. Rather, girls and boys demonstrated significantly different characteristics and preferences for toys and activities, as typical of their gender.
Fulcher, M., Sutfin, E. and Patterson, C.J. 2008. Individual differences in gender development: Associations with parental sexual orientation, attitudes, and division of labor. Sex Roles 58: 330-341.
Researchers compared children raised by heterosexual parents and children raised by lesbian mothers regarding their awareness and preference for gender stereotyped behavior. All children were equally aware of gender stereotypes and were stereotypical in current activities and future occupational goals. In addition, all children viewed gender transgression as negative.
Sutfin, E. L., Fulcher, M., Bowles, R. P. and Patterson, C. J. 2008. How lesbian and heterosexual parents convey attitudes about gender to their children: The role of gendered environments. Sex Roles 58: 501-513.
A mixed-method study examining gender beliefs and environment of children from families headed by lesbian couples and heterosexual couples. Children raised by lesbian mothers had less traditional gendered beliefs and less gender-stereotyped environments. Children s environments mediated gendered behavior for children and parents.
Middle Middle Middle
The articles in the subsections that follow review research on several aspects of the development of children in middle childhood (roughly, ages 5 to 12) with lesbian or gay parents. Topics include the psychosocial and intellectual development of adoptive children and those conceived through donor insemination, children s gender development, and children s experiences with heterosexism and teasing. This body of research primarily describes similarities among children raised by lesbian, gay, and
heterosexual parents, although a few differences crop up. We provide specific information about the resources in each section in commentaries below each sub-heading.
Psychosocial/Intellectual Development
The articles listed below review research on the psychosocial development of children in middle childhood with lesbian or gay parents. We categorize articles by pathway to parenthood: adoption or donor insemination. Brewaeys et al. s 1997 study includes a Dutch sample and an objective measure of parenting knowledge. Chan et al.'s 1998 study of children conceived by lesbian or heterosexual mothers is notable for its multiple reports, use of a systematic sampling frame, and inclusion of both number and gender of parents as predictors. Fulcher et al. 2006 provides a concise review of findings from the Contemporary Families Study, pulling from multiple published empirical papers. Fulcher et al. 2002 examined contact with men and with biological and non-biological grandparents among children with lesbian mothers. Gartrell et al. 2006 describes rates of abuse, as well as general psychosocial
development, in a national U.S. sample of children of lesbian mothers. Bos et al. 2008 provides a unique comparison of Dutch and American children and attends to cross-national differences. Erich et al.'s 2005 study was the first to examine children adopted by lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents. Tan and Baggerly s 2009 study is unique in its focus on Chinese girls adopted by single mothers, heterosexual couples, and lesbian couples. Finally, Averett et al. 2009 conducted the largest study to date regarding adoptive families that examines an array of child outcomes in relation to parental sexual orientation.
Chan, R. W., Raboy, B. and Patterson, C. J. 1998. Psychosocial adjustment among children conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Child Development 69: 443-457.
Quantitative study of psychosocial adjustment of elementary aged children. All children had been conceived through donor insemination. There were no differences in children s psychosocial development, as reported by children s teachers or parents, by family type, or by number of parents in the household.
Brewaeys, A, Ponjanert, I., Van Hall, E. V., and Golombok, S. 1997. Donor insemination: Child development and family functioning in lesbian mother families. Human Reproduction 12: 1349- 1359.
with social mothers (non-biological mothers) were of higher quality than child interactions with heterosexual fathers.
Bos, H.M.W., Gartrell, N.K., van Balen, F., Peyser, H., and Sandfort, T.G.M. 2008. Children in planned lesbian families: A cross-cultural comparison between the United States and the Netherlands. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 78: 211-219.
Mixed-method study of 10-year-old children with lesbian mothers: 78 American and 74 Dutch. Dutch children reported greater disclosure and fewer experiences with peer homophobia. Dutch mothers reported fewer child emotional and behavior problems. Child reports of experiences with peer homophobia partially accounted for cross-national differences in child psychosocial
adjustment.
Fulcher, M., Sutfin, E.L., Chan, R.W., Scheib, J.E., and Patterson, C.J. 2006. Lesbian mothers and their children: Findings from the Contemporary Families Study. In Sexual orientation and mental health: Examining identity and development in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. Edited by Allen N. Omoto and Howard S. Kurtzman, 281-299. American Psychological Association.
Book chapter review of findings from the Contemporary Families Study of 80 lesbian- and heterosexual-parent families formed through donor insemination. Parent and child adjustment, couple relationship satisfaction, and networks of supportive adults were similar regardless of parental sexual orientation. Family process variables were strong predictors of child outcomes.
Fulcher, M., Chan, R. W., Raboy, B., and Patterson, C. J. 2002. Contact with grandparents among children conceived via donor insemination by lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Parenting: Science and Practice 2: 61-76.
Quantitative study of families participating in the Contemporary Families Study who conceived through donor insemination (see Fulcher et al., 2005 for sample details). Amount of child-grandparent contact and contact with adult men was similar regardless of parental sexual orientation. However, children in both groups had more frequent contact with genetic grandparents than with non-genetic grandparents.
Gartrell, N., Deck, A. D., Rodas, C., Peyser, H., and Banks, A. 2006. The USA national lesbian family study: Interviews with mothers of 10-year-olds. Feminism & Psychology 16: 175-192.
Erich, S., Leung, P., and Kindle, P. 2005. A comparative analysis of adoptive family functioning with gay, lesbian and heterosexual parents and their children. Journal of GLBT Family Studies 1: 43-60.
Study of 72 adoptive lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents and their 111 children. Children s adjustment and parents perceptions of social support from extended family did not vary as a function of parental sexual orientation.
Tan, T. X. and Baggerly, J. 2009. Behavioral adjustment of adopted Chinese girls in single-mother, lesbian-couple, and heterosexual-couple households. Adoption Quarterly 12: 171-186.
Examined behavioral adjustment among 93 Chinese girls (Mean age, 5.5 years) adopted by single heterosexual mothers, lesbian couples, and heterosexual couples. Children s behavioral adjustment was not statistically different by family type. In two exceptions, children in single-mother households scored lower than did their peers from lesbian-couple households.
Averett, P., Nalavany, B., and Ryan, S. 2009. An evaluation of gay/lesbian and heterosexual adoption. Adoption Quarterly 12:129-151.
Examined outcomes of 1,384 children (N = 380, 1.5 to 5 years; N = 1,004 children, 6 to 18 years) with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual adoptive parents. Controlling for child age, sex, pre-adoptive experiences, and family income, children s internalizing and externalizing behaviors were unrelated to parents sexual orientation.
Experiences with Heterosexism and Teasing
Much of the research on middle childhood has focused on psychosocial or gender development, although there is an increasing literature regarding the experiences of these children. We include two studies that deal with these issues. Litovich and Langhout 2004 examined young children s experiences with
heterosexism in their daily lives due to having lesbian mothers. Vanfraussen et al. 2002 examined the experiences of children who were conceived via donor insemination, specifically regarding teasing and disclosure surrounding their family system. Neither study found that children s family systems had a large or negative impact on their lives.
Litovich, M.L. and Langhout, R.D. 2004. Framing heterosexism in lesbian families: a preliminary examination of resilient coping. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology 14: 411-435.
Vanfraussen, K., Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, I., and Brewaeys, A. 2002. What does it mean for youngsters to grow up in a lesbian family created by means of donor insemination? Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 20: 237-252.
Mixed-method study of 41 Belgian children and adolescents with lesbian mothers and a matched group of 41 peers with heterosexual parents. Amount of teasing did not differ by family type. Groups were similar on a variety of measures of psychosocial outcomes, as reported by children, parents, and teachers.
Gender Development
The articles listed below review research on the gender development of children in middle childhood with lesbian mothers. To date, no published empirical research has addressed the gender development of children in middle childhood with gay fathers. Kirkpatrick et al.'s 1981 study is notable for its early
publication date as well as its focus on children of single mothers. Bos and Sandfort s 2010 study extends this area of research by studying gender development in a slightly older sample of Dutch children, also finding significant differences between children of lesbian and heterosexual parents.
Kirkpatrick, M., Smith, C. and Roy, R. 1981. Lesbian mothers and their children: A comparative survey. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 51: 545- 551.
Comparison of children currently living with their mother as a single heterosexual parent and those living with their mother as a single lesbian mother. Children s gender development did not significantly differ by family type.
Bos, H. M. W. and Sandfort, T. G. M. 2010. Children s gender identity in lesbian and heterosexual two-parent families. Sex Roles 62: 114–126.
Compared Dutch children from lesbian families and heterosexual families. Children with lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender norms, were less likely to express superiority of their own gender, and were more likely to express uncertainty regarding future heterosexual romantic relationships.
Adolescen Adolescen Adolescen
Adolescencecece andceandand AAAAdulthoodand dulthooddulthood dulthood
Two major areas of interest have emerged regarding the development of adolescents and adults raised by sexual minority parents. The first area is overall adjustment, which includes psychological
Psychosocial Development
Much of the research on adolescents raised by sexual minority parents has focused on children raised by lesbian mothers, not gay fathers (Patterson & Riskind 2011). Wainright and Patterson 2006, Wainright and Patterson 2008, and Wainright et al. 2004 studied a matched, nationally-representative sample of children being raised by different-sex and female same-sex parents. Tasker and Golombok 1995 studied psychological wellbeing, family relationships, and formation of friendships and intimate relationships among children raised in heterosexual- or lesbian-headed households. A recent longitudinal study found that children of lesbian mothers performed slightly better, compared to national norms, on measures of academic achievement and social competence (Gartrell & Bos 2010). In an additional study of families headed by single heterosexual mothers, two heterosexual parents, and lesbian mothers, researchers found no differences among young adults psychological functioning as a function of family type
(Golombok & Badger 2010). Erich et al. 2009 were the first to investigate the attachment style of adopted children as function of family type, specifically, families headed by lesbian, gay, or heterosexual parents. To date, the research on adolescents raised by sexual minority parents has consistently failed to find that parental sexual orientation has any negative impact on children s adjustment.
Wainright, J. L., Russell, S. T., and Patterson, C. J. 2004. Psychosocial adjustment and school outcomes of adolescents with same-sex parents. Child Development 75: 1886-1898.
This study compared adolescents with female same-sex parents (n = 44) and different-sex parents (n = 44), matched from a national sample. Groups exhibited similar psychosocial development and school outcomes.
Wainright, J. L. and Patterson, C. J. 2008. Peer relations among adolescents with female same-sex parents. Developmental Psychology 44: 117–126.
Using the same matched sample of adolescents from the previous study, researchers found that both groups were developing normally on both self-report and peer-report measures of relations with peers. In addition, both groups had average peer relationship quality in the normal range.
Gartrell, H. and Bos, H.M.W. 2010. US national longitudinal lesbian family study: Psychological Adjustment of 17-year-old adolescents. Pediatrics 126: 1-9.
Adolescents with lesbian mothers scored significantly higher on academic and social competence and lower on externalizing problems, compared to national norms. Overall, these children seem to be well adjusted and, in some ways, better than the national norms.
Adolescents overall adjustment was similar across family type (two female parents or one male and one female parent). However, adolescents who reported closer relationships with their parents had lower rates of delinquent behavior and substance abuse. Overall, quality of parent-child relationship was more predictive of negative behaviors than was family type.
Patterson, C.J. and Riskind, R.G. 2011. Adolescents with lesbian or gay parents. In Textbook of Adolescent Healthcare. Edited by M. Fisher, R. Kreipe, and W. Rosenfeld, 1-4. Chicago: American Academy of Pediatrics.
Book chapter reviewing research on adolescents with lesbian or gay parents, targeted towards pediatricians. Adolescent children of sexual minority parents sometimes encounter antigay prejudice and discrimination, but there is no evidence that this negatively affects their overall adjustment. No reliable differences distinguish between children raised by lesbian and heterosexual parents.
Tasker, F. and Golombok, S. 1995. Adults raised as children in lesbian families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 65: 203- 215.
Longitudinal study examining the psychological wellbeing, family relationships, and formation of friendships/intimate relationships among individuals raised in lesbian families. Sample included Twenty-five young adults from lesbian families and 21 raised by single heterosexual mothers.
Golombok, S., and Badger, S. 2010. Children raised in mother-headed families from infancy: A follow-up of children of lesbian and heterosexual mothers, at early adulthood. Human Reproduction 25: 150–157.
Longitudinal study comparing families headed by single heterosexual mothers, two heterosexual parents, and lesbian mothers. Researchers found no differences between the parents quality of parenting and the young adults psychological functioning by family type.
Erich, S., Kanenberg, H., Case, K., Allen, T., and Bogdanos, T. 2009. An empirical analysis of factors affecting adolescent attachment in adoptive families with homosexual and straight parents. Children and Youth Services Review 31: 398-404.
This study of 154 adoptive families with lesbian, gay, and heterosexual parents and their 210 adolescent children revealed that secure attachment style was unrelated to parental sexual orientation. Rather, across all families, attachment predicted adolescents life satisfaction, parents relationship satisfaction with their child, number of prior placements, and adolescent's current age.
This is a relatively new area of study. Two longitudinal studies and two cross-sectional studies to date have found that children raised by sexual minority parents are no more likely than children raised by heterosexual parents to identify as lesbian, bisexual, or gay in adolescence. At the same time, both longitudinal studies found that adolescent girls raised by lesbian mothers, compared to children raised by heterosexual parents, were more likely to have engaged in same-sex sexual behaviors (Gartrell et al. 2010; Golombok & Tasker 1996). In a qualitative study, Goldberg 2007 found that adults with sexual minority parents expressed flexible ideas about gender and sexual orientation. Bailey et al. 1995 examined the sexual orientation of a group of men who had been raised by gay fathers and found no evidence that these men were more likely than men raised by heterosexual parents to identify as gay or bisexual themselves. More research is needed in this area.
Gartrell, N. K., Bos, H. M. W., Goldberg, N. G. 2010. Adolescents of the U.S. national longitudinal lesbian family study: Sexual orientation, sexual behavior, and sexual risk exposure. Archives of Sexual Behavior: 1- 11.
More girls than boys raised by lesbian mothers identified as bisexual, but only a small minority of the adolescents identified as predominately or exclusively homosexual. Daughters of lesbian mothers were significantly older at the time of first sexual intercourse then a comparative national sample of adolescents.
Golombok, S., and Tasker, F. 1996. Do parents influence the sexual orientation of their children? Findings from a longitudinal study of lesbian families. Developmental Psychology 32: 3–11.
There are no differences between adults raised by heterosexual and lesbian mothers, in terms of adults sexual identity. In contrast, significantly more of the adult women raised by lesbian mothers had engaged in same-sex sexual behavior than had their peers who were raised by heterosexual mothers.
Bailey, J. M., Bobrow, D., Mikach, S., Wolfe, M. 1995. Sexual orientation of adult sons of gay fathers. Developmental Psychology 31: 124-129.
The largest study to examine the sexual orientation of men raised by gay/bisexual fathers. An overwhelming majority (more than 90%) of the sons were described by their fathers as heterosexual. Comparison of the heterosexual and gay/bisexual sons showed no clear differentiation between the two groups.
Goldberg, A. E. 2007. (How) does it make a difference? Perspectives of adults with lesbian, gay, and bisexual parents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 77: 550- 562.
and tolerant of people who were different and they felt that they had flexible ideas about gender and sexual orientation.
Disclosure of Family Structure by Adolescent and Adults
Research has recently begun to address adolescents and adults disclosure of their parents sexual orientation to their peers and other important individuals in their lives. Gianino 2009 found that there was a wide range of level of disclosure among a group of adolescents and young adults. Goldberg 2007 learned why or how adults raised by LGB sexual minority parents disclose their family system to individuals in their lives. Empirical research in this area is sparse.
Gianino, M., Goldberg, A. E., and Lewis, T. 2009. Family outings: Disclosure practices among adopted youth with gay and lesbian parents. Adoption Quarterly 12: 205-228.
Qualitative interviews with 14 children aged 13 to 20 years who had been adopted by lesbian or gay parents. Amount of disclosure varied among the adolescents.
