AN ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC FIELD ON THE GLOBAL HEALTH AND TRAVEL MAGAZINE
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata One (S1)
By
INTAN EKA SAPUTRI 1110026000115
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTEMENT ADAB AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY “SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH “
i
Intan Eka Saputri. An Analysis of Semantic Field on Health Text of The Global Health and Travel Magazine. A Thesis: English Letters Department, Letters and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University “Syarif Hidyatullah Jakarta, 2014.
The study is aimed to tabulate lexemes in constructing Semantic Field on health text of The Global Health and Travel magazine and to describe components of meaning in those lexemes. This research used the method of descriptive analysis method.
The data research data were collected from the 13 texts of health text on The Global Health and Travel magazine. The data were analyzed by using the componential analysis theory. The theory was used to identify components of meaning containing simultaneous semantic field. On the basis of such components lexemes were then related to some features. That made on the table form.
On the basis of analysis found on the texts, there are six Semantic Fields namely, the Semantic Field of ‘medical treatment’, the Semantic Field of ‘chronic illness’, the Semantic Field of ‘healthy occupation’, the Semantic Field of ‘medicine’, the Semantic Field of ‘liquid of body’ and the Semantic Field of ‘medical center’. Those semantic fields are constructed into lexemes that occur on the every text.
Finally, the researcher wants her study to be useful for all of the reader, especially the students of English Letters Department. The researcher also expects to all the readers and students to enrich their knowledge about grammatical
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to my best knowledge and
belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor
material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree
or diploma of the University or other Institute of higher learning, except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, February 2015
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and gratitude be to Allah for giving the researcher ability and health to finish this thesis. Blessing be upon our prophet Muhammad SAW, his descendants and his followers.
This thesis is presented to the English Letters Department, Adab and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University ‘Syarif Hidayatullah’ Jakarta as a
partial of requirements for the Degree of Strata One. This thesis could not be completed without a great deal of help from many people, especially Mrs. Ummi Kultsum, M.Pd, and Mrs. Solikatus Sa’diyah, M.Pd, as her thesis advisors, whose guidance, patience, support and encouragement from the initial to the final level enable her to develop an understanding of the subject. Without their guidance, this thesis would not be completed well
The researcher also would like to express her deepest gratitude to the individuals for helping her to finish this thesis and for their contribution in the process of writing until it had become a complete work. They are:
1. Prof. Dr. Sukron Kamil, MA, the Dean of Adab and Humanities Faculty. 2. Drs. Asep Saefuddin, M. Pd, the Head of English Letters Department 3. Mrs. Elve Oktafiyani, M. Hum, the Secretary of English Letters
Department.
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5. To her beloved parents, her father RasikunGunadi and her mother Muslinah who has given their best support (both moral and material), motivation, care and pray.
6. To her lovely sister Mutiara Dwi Anggraini who always give her care and support.
7. To her best friends Mey, Adah, Sissy,Heni, Camelia, Erlina, Nia, mba Ratna, mas Ridho they always give her a support and motivation to finish this thesis.
8. To all her friends in English Letters Department 2010 especially her D Class they have given her a precious memory every time she was with them.
9. To her close friends Ciik Can, Upa, Kikii, Neng, Laila, Kadeska who always give her a support.
10.All the people who have helped her during the process of conducting this research that whose names are not mentioned here.
May Allah SWT, The Almighty and The Merciful, bless them all. The researcher also realizes that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Therefore, suggestions and criticisms will be accepted for the improvement of this thesis.
Jakarta, January 2015
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Approval Sheet ………..…. ii
Legalization ………... iii
Declaration ……… iv
Acknowledgement ……… v
Table of Contents ……….. vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ………..………. 1
A. Background of the Study ……… 1
B. Focus of the Study ……….. 6
C. Research Question ………... 6
D. Significance of the Study ……….. 6
E. Research Methodology ……….… 7
1. The Objective of Research ………. 7
2. The Method of Research ………..……… 7
3. The Technique of Data Analysis ……… 8
4. The Instrument of the Research ………. 8
5. The Unit of Analysis ………. 8
6. Time and Place Study ……… 9
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ………... 10
A. Previous Research ……… 10
B. Semantic ……… 10
C. Lexeme ……….……….. 14
D. Semantic Field …….………….……… 16
1. Synonym ….……… 18
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3. Antonym ……… 20
4. Homonymy ……….. 22
5. Hyponymy ……….. 24
6. Converseness ………. 25
7. Componential Analysis ……….. 25
CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS ……… 30
A. Data Description ………..………. 30
B. Data Analysis ……….………... 34
CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ………. 55
A. Conclusion ………. 50
B. Suggestion ………. 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY …..……….. 52
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
English is an international language that is used in almost every country in the world both as a native language and as a foreign language. In Indonesia, it is generally used as the main foreign language. Nowadays, English is used almost in various areas for examples: in education, politics, economics, mass media, magazine etc.
In the field of magazine, a lot of magazine that uses English as the language communication, one of them is Global Health and Travel magazine. Global Health and Travel magazine presents options available to the reader in an accessible format.1 The magazine focuses on service offered by internationally-accredited healthcare institutions typically sought by travellers. These includes elective procedures like cosmetic surgery and dental treatment, to complex, specialized procedures such as joint replacement for hips and knees, cardiac, surgery, fertility treatment and more.2 The purpose of the establishment of Global Health and Travel is to present to the medical travel and tourism for medical treatment performed by highly-trained specialist in purpose built facilities. They pay a fraction of what they would at home and even manage to turn their trip in holiday. As healthcare costs rise, waiting times for procedures increase, and the technology and standards of care in
1
http://www.globalhealthandtravel.com/about
2
several countries improve and even surpass those in the west, medical travel will soon become viable solution. 3 Currently consumers use resources online to organize such trips, but with the ocean of information on the internet they are not able to make an informed choice how to obtain quality care and Global Health and Travel is become your reliable guide to healthcare abroad. The magazine has some specific parts to facilitate the reader in reading the news. In Global Health and Travel magazine have some columns such as: Beauty, Health, Medical Care, Travel, and Event etc. Therefore if the readers want to know information about health they can read them directly in the column of health . Similarly, when they want to know information about medical care, they can read the column of medical care without reading the newspaper from the beginning page until end.
To understand the content of columns, it is needed good lexical comprehension. So, any misunderstanding such as the reader‟s misinterpretation of the written text can be avoided. Lexical comprehension is studied scientifically in semantics. One of the studies about lexical semantics is a study about semantics field. This study states that lexicon in every language that is all lexeme (word) system which related to meaning, and can be restructured as phoneme in grammatical study. Semantic field is a group of words that are related because they are from the same area of knowledge or interest, e.g. the semantic field of agriculture includes: farm, farming, tractor,
meadow, crop, etc. 4. Lexical is the focus study in semantic field. Lexical was analyzed based on its componential meaning to get a description about lexical and the semantic field structure.
Richards, Platt and Webber mentioned that “Semantic field is an organization or grouping of words or expression into a system that shows the relationship between words with the other word”.5 Meanwhile, Harimurti says that a field of meaning is part of system semantic of language that describes the part of the culture or reality in live which is realized by a set of lexical whose meaning is related. For example, the names of kinship terms, such as “father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, aunt”, established a specific of
semantic field. Similarly, the color names, such as “black, white, red, blue, green, yellow”, can be grouped into a certain semantic field associated color.6
On the other hand, semantic field is a study that examines the relationship between the lexicon that can be classified into specific groups, so a componential analysis is needed to explain the nature and character of each lexicon. In An introduction to Language, Fromkin says that “one way of
representation semantic properties is the use of semantic features. Semantic features are formal or notational devices that indicate the presence or absence of semantic properties by pluses and minuses”.7
One way to know the elements of each of the lexicon is by giving positive and negative
4
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, Semantic Field. Accessed on December 21, 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/semanticfield, p.1.
5
WachyuSundayana and Aziz Aminudin, Semantics (Jakarta: Universitas Terbuka, 2007), p.3.14.
6 ibid 7
4
characteristic of each lexical, for example : lexicon between father and mother, father lexicon has a meaning: /+animate/, /+adult/, /+married/, /+human/, /+male/, while the mother has meaning: /+ animate/, /+adult/, /+married/, /+ human/, /-male/.8 Therefore people can know that the difference between father and mother lexicon lies in the meaning of sex, father has mean a man and mother has mean a woman not a man.
Semantic Field is very important to be learned, because to know what types of semantic field that constructed and how relationship between one lexeme to other lexeme.
Through this research, the writer interests to analyze the relationship between a lexicon and other lexicons in the column of health on Global Health and Travel magazine: A news column provides information about the health which is very useful for human life. By reading the text of column of health on Global Health and Travel, everyone can understand the various kinds of medical terms, which are indirectly absorbed from the English Language. Therefore, it influences indirectly the meaning of the lexicon about healthy, for example word “injeksi” in the medical word derived from the “injection”.
In every language, some words have not meaning by itself, but there are also words that are interconnected with other words. Each word also has its own meaning feature, often referred to as the “Principle of Distinction”.9
There are two types of the principle difference in semantics, the principle of
8
WachyuSundayana and Aziz Aminudin (2007), op.cit.p.139.
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distinguishing the identity of phonemes and identity of meaning or semantics, for example in mentioned semantic field of treatment place, it consists of: Hospital, Clinic, Puskesmas (in Indonesia), etc. Generally, many people think these place have the same meaning that is place to take treatment. But when a person analyzes it using the componential analysis so each place has different meaning based on the function and facilities that was owned, for example: between meaning of Hospital, Puskesmas and Clinic. The Hospital has meaning: / + place to take treatment/, / + is a medical /, / + has a complete maintenance facilities /, / + owned by the government or a state /, Puskesmas has the meaning: / + place to take treatment /, / + is a medical /, / + has a complete maintenance facilities /, / + owned by the government of a state /. While the clinic is: / + place to take treatment/, / + is a medical/, / - has a complete maintenance facilities/, /- owned by the government or a state/. Thus it can be known differences and similarities of certain lexicon in semantic field.
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B. Focus of The Study
In this research the researcher focuses on the semantic field and its analysis with componential analysis theory of the Health texts in column of the Global Health and Travel magazine. The selected texts are randomly chosen which consists of six semantic fields that are taken of the health texts in The Global Health and Travel in July until August 2014.
C. Research Question
Based on the background and the focus of the study, the researcher tries to formulate the question to get more specific purpose. The research questions are:
1. What types of semantic fields are constructed by the lexeme within the health text in The Global Health and Travel magazine?
2. What are relationships among a lexeme and other lexeme of semantic fields in the health texts The Global Health and Travel?
D. Significance of the Study
Besides that, the research can hopefully be advantage for further researches that would like to conduct the research with similar case as additional reference especially in semantic field.
E. Research Methodology 1. Objective of the Research
Generally, this study is aimed to know the form of semantic field and the usage which based on the semantic concept in mass media text of the Global Health and Travel magazine. Specifically, this research attempts to obtain empirical data, as follows:
1.1The Forms of semantic fields that contained in the health text on the Global Health and Travel.
1.2To know the relation among lexemes of the semantic field in the health texts of the Global Health and Travel.
2. The Method of Research
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3. The Technique of Data Analysis
The researcher uses qualitative method in this research. First, the researcher reads carefully the definition of semantic field and componential analysis theory. Second, the researcher reads and understands the health texts on the Global Health and Travel, then identifies the lexical that included in the semantic field of health. The last, the researcher correlates the theory of semantic fields with lexical of health that the researcher was found. Besides that, the researcher analyzes the lexical of health with the meaning componential analysis. In this phase, the researcher also explains the relationship between lexical semantic field with the text on the Global Health and Travel.
4. The Instrument of the Research
The instrument of the research is the researcher herself through reading and understanding the text. The researcher observes and signs the possibility of the lexical field occurrence within the health text on the Global Health and Travel. She also provides the table of component to know the relation of the selected lexemes and the given components. 5. The Unit of Analysis
diabetes), Text 4 (Chemo-free lung cancer treatment), Text 5 (Radical trachelectomy: a chance to preserve fertility), Text 6 (Challenges in the fight against cervical cancer), Text 7 (Breast cancer-causing chemicals; ultrasound BC screening), Text 8 (Body contouring surgery after weight loss), Text 9 (Cord blood stem cell banking), Text 10 (The dangers of having more than one child in one go), Text 11 (Enter the anti-ageing kitchen), Text 13 (Preventative health screening for women).
6. Time and Place Study
[image:18.595.111.514.177.598.2]10
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Previous Research
Ilham Fathurahman10 has done a research “An Analysis of Semantic Field on Health Text of The Jakarta Post” in 2011. He explains
semantic field uses theory componential Analysis by A. Lehrer
In this research under titled “An Analysis of Semantic Field on
Health Text of The Global and The Global Health and Travel magazine July-August 2014” the researcher does not use the newspaper as the corpus, but use health magazine for clearly understands the types and meaning of semantic field in the medicine term.
B. Semantic
Semantic is technical term for “meaning”. The term is derived from
the Greek word semantikos “significant" compare also semaino “to signify” and sema (N.T. Greek semeion) “ a sign” so semantic is a branch
of linguistics which the study of meaning and the relationship among form that is contained in language code, or other type of representation.11
10
Ilham Fathurahman, “An Analysis of Semantic Field on Health Text of The Jakarta
Post”. (A Thesis S1: State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2011), p.i.
11
Semantics is concerned with meaning, and with the relation between the FORM of a particular language and the meaning that forms represents. It includes:
a. The Study of the area of meaning of individual words within the lexical system of specific languages, and the combinations of words which each language permits.
b. Meaning in relation to context, whether linguistic or non linguistic context.
c. The meaning and relationships signaled by specific grammatical forms and patterns.
d. The transfer, or translation, of meaning from one language to another.12
Semantic is usually contrasted with other aspects of expression meaning, there are syntax (The formation of the complex symbols from the simple symbols), and pragmatic (practical use of the symbol by the agency or community to a condition or a specific context).13
Generally, semantics is the study of meaning and is contrasted into three aspects. There are:
a. Syntax
b. Semiotic
12
Ibid, p.10.
13
12
c. Pragmatic14
Syntax interprets the formal relationship between the sign of each other, semiotic interpret the relations of the signs and objects that form an implementation of the sign itself. Whereas, pragmatic is a knowledge that interpret the relation of the signs with interpret.
Morries subsequently made a changes and limited pragmatics as “the branch of semiotics which examines the origins, uses, and effects of
signs”, based on the limitation by Morries previously Rudolf Carnap then
made the restrictions as follows:
“If in an investigation (research) the references either explicitly
made to the speaker, or in a broader sense, the language user, then we put him into the field of pragmatics area. In advance resume it from the language users and only analyze the expression and the signifying, that we have been semantic field. If we resumed them from the signifying and then analyze the relations among the expressions, then we have been on the syntactic field. These whole sciences of languages that cover all those three parts above, is called semantics.15
Semantic has a very important role for linguistics. Ferdinand de Saussure referred as the signifier (significant) and the signified (signify),16 then the actually the study of linguistics without semantics is merely
14
Ibid, p.3.
15
Ibid, pp. 2-4.
16
meaningless. These both components, significant and signify are things which cannot be separated each other.
A word, for example “BOOK” consists of a sound symbol which
are (B-O-O-K) and the concepts or mental images for the object which is called “BOOK”. According to Ogden and Richards in a classic works about “Semantic Triangle Theory” which give some influences in semantic
theory until now.17 The link among symbols, mental images or concepts and referent or object, which can be explained with pictures and descriptions referent as follows:
Images/concept of book
Symbols (b-o-o-k) referent (object)
The meaning of word „book‟ demonstrates the concept of book which
is stored in our brains and denoted by the word book. Therefore, it can be concluded that semantic examines the meaning language signs, namely the link between concept and sign of language.18
The triangle of Odgen and Richards showed that between the symbol of the language and concept have a different relationship, while the
17
Kushartanti, et.al.,PesonaBahasa: LangkahAwalMemahamiLinguistik(Jakarta: PT. GramediaPustakaUtama, 2005), p.114.
14
symbol of the language with referent or object is not related directly (this is showed by dashed line) because it must be through the concept. This show that languages and reality are not two things that are identical; the word is not simply a label that is displayed on the objects, events in the really of world also contained language of a society point of view from the reality.
C. Lexeme
A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, which roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word.19 For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are from the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN. So the relation between word and lexeme can be describing like this. Lexeme ---(process morphology)---word.20
A lexeme belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a certain meaning (semantic value), and in inflecting languages, has a responding inflectional paradigm; that is a lexeme in many languages will have many different forms. For example, the lexeme RUN has a present third person singular from runs, a present non-third-person singular from run (which also function as the past participle and non-finite form), a past from ran, and a present participle running. (It does not include runner, runners, runnerable etc.) The use of the forms of a lexeme is governed by rules of
19
The Free Dictionary by Farlex, Description of Lexeme. Accessed on March 19, 2011, http://www.freedictionary.com/lexeme, p.1.
20
grammar; in the case of English verbs such as RUN, these include subject-verb agreement and compound tense rules, which determine which form of a verb can be used in a given sentence.
The lexical meaning is the meaning which is owned by a lexeme without context.21 For example, lexeme “horse” has a lexical meaning is a kind of four-footed animals that can be driven. Lexeme “pencil” has a lexical meaning is a kind of writing instruments made of wood and carbonic.
Lexical meaning is the basic meaning of word that is according in the dictionary. This basic meaning attached to the stem of a wood. Lexical meaning can also be referred to the original meaning of a wood that has not affixation. However, the most people prefer to define of the lexical meaning as the dictionary meaning. For example a word in Indonesia language:
(a) Rumah (b) Berumah
The first example (a) is a word that not has affixation, derivation or inflection. Based on dictionary of KBRI, the meaning word “rumah” is a
home stay building. While the second example (b) is a derivative word,the second example (b) has different meaning with the first meaning (a), although the word is essentially the same, “rumah”. The addition of a
21
16
prefix “ber-“ in the word “rumah” makes the meaning of ”rumah”
changes is not only a home stay building but also become to have a home stay building.
D. Semantic Field
Semantic field is a group of words that are related because they are from the same area of knowledge or interest.22 Richard, Platt and Weber defines “semantic field” is organization or group of each word in a system
that showed relation of a word with other words.
Besides that Harimurti states that semantic field is part of semantic system of languages which illustrates part of culture or some certain reality that is realized by correlated-lexical elements.23 For example the semantic field of agriculture includes: farm, farming, tractor, meadow, crop etc. A semantic field is a technical term in discipline of linguistics to describe a set of words grouped in a certain way. The term is also used in other academic disciplines, such as anthropology and computational semiotics.24
Brinton defines “semantic field” or “semantic domain” relates the linguistics concept to hyponymy: “Related to the concept of hyponymy,
but more loosely defined, is the nation of a semantic field or domain. A semantic field denotes a segment of reality symbolized by a set of related
22
Anonymous, Englishbiz: Semantic Field Grammar. Accessed On November 19, 2007, http://www.englishbliz.co.uk/grammar/mainfiels/definitionsn-z.htm, p.1.
23
WahyuSundayana (2007),loc.cit.
24
words. The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property”.25
A general and intuitive description is that words in a semantic field are not synonymous, but are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon. A meaning of a word is dependent partly on its relation to other words in the same conceptual area. The kinds of semantic vary from culture to culture and anthropologists use them to study belief systems and reasoning across cultural group.
Andersen identifies the traditional usage of “semantic field” theory as: “Traditionally, semantic fields have been used for comparing the
lexical structure of different languages and different states of the same language.26
Lyons suggests several primitive semantic relationships, such as synonymy, incompatibility, class inclusion, antonym, hyponymy, complementary, homonymy, and conversances, although a few others should be added, and perhaps some of this can be further divided. These relationships apply principally to paradigmatic contrasts-words which areal nouns, adjectives, or verbs.27
25
Laurel J. Brinton, The Structure Modern English : A Linguistics Introduction .(New York: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 2000), p.122.
26Wedhawati, “Lexical fields Componential Analysis and Definition of Lexical Sense”, RintisandalamnKajianLeksikologi and Leksikografi, no 2 (2002), January 27, 2011, p. 122.
27
18
1. Synonymy
Synonymy is different words with almost identical or similar meanings, synonym word are said to be synonymous. The word comes from ancient Greek syn(“equal” or “similar” ) and onama(“name”).28
Therefore synonym is the relationship of semantic which states the similarity of meaning between utterances with other utterances. For example, between the words “right” and “correct” or “buy” and “purchase”, “quickly” and “speedily”, “sick” and “ill”, and between
sentences ; “Dika kick the ball” with “the ball is kicked by Dika”.
The relation of synonymy is two way, if unit of speech A synonymous,, with the unit of speech B, so the unit of speech B were synonymous with the unit of speech A.29 In correctly, if the word “correct” synonymous with the word “right”, so the word “right”
absolutely was synonymous with the word “correct”.
Right Correct
Correct Right
Synonymous not only describe general ideas but also make a distinction between meanings of the words. Although the meaning of the
28
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, Description of Synonym.Accessed on April 8, 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/synonym, p.1.
29
words; pretty, comely, good, nice, beautiful, gorgeous, kind, etc, have same meaning, people never say:
a. A kind woman b. The girl is gorgeous
But
a. A pretty woman b. The girl is comely
Note that synonyms are defined with respect to certain sense of words; for instance, pupil as the “aperture in the iris of the eye” is not synonyms with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died.
2. Class Inclusion
The highest term in the taxonomy has been called by various names: head word, cover word, superordinate or arch lexeme.30 Occasionally there is no appropriate head word for taxonomy, though of course speakers have number of devices for failing the gap. For example, in English there is a set of terms, pot, jar, glass, vase, bottle, etc. referring to containers capable of holding liquids. Container is too general since it is also a head word for box, basket, and sack. The word vessel might be used, though speakers feel the vessel is odd. A simpler example is absence of a „comfortable‟ superordinate term to cover brother and
30
20
sister, sibling is rather technical. Similarly, there is no term that includes aunt and uncle.
3. Antonym
The word antonyms consists of “anti” or “ant” which means “opposites”
and the root “onuma” or “onim” which means “name”, so antonym is a word that
contain the opposite meaning with other a word.31In his book “An Introduction to Language” Fromkin says “the meaning of a word may be partially defined by
saying what it is not. Male means not female, dead means not alive. Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms”.32
Ironically, the basic property of words that are antonyms is that they share all but one semantic property. Beautiful and tall are not antonyms; beautiful and ugly, or tall and short, are. The property they do not share is present in one and absent in the other. There are several kinds of antonym. There are complementary pairs:
Alive/Dead
Present/absent
Awake/Asleep
They are complementary in that not alive = dead and not dead = alive, and so on. There are gradable pairs of antonyms:
Big/Small
31
Henry G. Tarigan (1985), op,cit. p.30.
32
Hot/Cold
Fast/Slow
Happy/Sad
The meaning of adjectives in gradable pairs is related to the object they modify. The words themselves do not provide an absolute scale. Thus we know that “a small elephant” is much bigger than “a large mouse”.
Fast is faster when we applied to an airplane than to a car.
With gradable pairs, the negative of one word is not synonymous with the other. For example, someone who is not happy is not necessarily sad. It is also true of gradable antonyms that more of one is less of another. More bigness is less smallness; wider is less narrow; taller is less short.
Gradable antonyms are often found among sets of words that partition a continuum:
Tiny-small-medium-large-huge-gargantuan-
euphoric-elated-happy-sad-gloomy-despondent.
Antonym or opposites is a relation between words that are contrary or opposite meaning.33 The terms “antonym” is used to opposite meaning in lexical class, such as hot with cold, is called standard antonym, because between hot and cold, there are still other words like warmandlukewarm stiff.
33
22
This sentence such as “I do not want to bathe with cold water”
does not mean “I want to bathe with hot water” because it may mean “I
want to bathe with warm water” it is called complementary antonym.34
4. Homonymy
Homonymy is different words that are pronounced the same, but may or may not be spelled the same.35 To, too, and two are homonyms despite their spelling differences. Homonym can create ambiguity. A word or a sentence is ambiguous if it can be understood or interpreted in more than one way. The sentence:
I‟ll meet you by the bank
The sentences may mean I’ll meet you by the financial situation”
or “I’ll meet you by the riverside”. The ambiguity is due to the two words
bank with two different meanings. Sometimes additional context can helps disambiguate the sentence:
I‟ll meet you by the bank, in front of the automated teller machine.
I‟ll meet you by the bank. We can go skinny-dipping.
Homonymy are good candidates for humor as well as for confusion.
“How is bread made?”
34 Ibid. 35
“I know that!” Alice cried eagerly.
“You take some flour_____”
“Where do you pick the flower?” the white queen asked, “In
garden or the hedges?”
“Well, it isn‟t picked at all” Alice explained; “it‟s ground_____”
“How many acres of ground?” said the White Queen.
The humor of this passage is based on the two sets of homonyms; flower and flour and the two meaning of ground. Alice means ground as the past tense of grind, whereas the white queen is interpreting ground to mean “earth”.
A related concept is heteronym. Two words are heteronyms if they are spelled the same, but pronounced differently, and have different meanings. Dove the bird and dove the past tense of dive are heteronyms, as are bass, bow, lead, wind and hundreds of others.
24
Homonyms Heteronym Homographs
Pronounced identically yes no yes/no
Spelled identically yes/no yes yes
5. Hyponymy
The people know that the words red, white, and blue are “color” words, that is their lexical representations have the feature (+color) indicating a class to which they all belong. Similarly lion, tiger, leopard, and lynx have the feature (+feline). Such sets of words are called hyponyms.36 The relationship of hyponym is between the more general term such as color and the more specific instance of it such as red. Thus red is a hyponym of feline; or equivalently, color has the hyponym red and feline has the hyponym has the hyponym lion.
Besides that, Kushartanti and UntungYuwono in “PesonaBahasa : langkah awal memahami linguistic” said that “hyponym is a relation of meaning related to the coverage of specific meaning in the generic meaning, like the meaning of
orchids in featured flower, the meaning of cat in featured animal.37
In linguistics, a hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is include within that of another word, its hypernym (sometimes spelled hyperonym outside of the natural language processing community). In simpler terms, a hyponym shares a type-of relationship with its hypernym. For example,
36
Ibid, pp. 180-184.
37
Scarlet, vermilion, carmine, and crimson are all hyponyms of red (their hypernym), which is, in turn, a hyponym color.
6. Converseness
Converseness is the relationship that holds between such as pairs of words a buy-sell and husband-wife.38 Kin terms like husband-wife, parent-child are also given as an examples of convers terms, and similar kinds of sentential relationships hold. Some members of converse pairs seem more dispensable than others. If buy were to disappear from the vocabulary of English, it would still possible (and not too difficult) to talk about certain transaction just using sell.
7. Component Analysis
Componential analysis or lexical decomposition is a basic study of lexical fields in determining semantic relations of different lexical items in one lexical field.39 It can also be used to define the sense of lexical items in dictionary making. The sense of lexical item is the composition of semantic components. Such composition of semantic components can be analyzed into its component part.
Besides that, A. Lehrer says that “componential analysis is any word, lexeme or lexical items that have a specifically meaning, the meaning of every word that consists of several components that make up the whole meaning of the word. From the pedagogic point of view „componential analysis‟ (CA) offers a
38
Adrienne Lehrer (1974), op,cit,.p.27.
39
26
systematic and easy way of describing similarity and difference in meaning. It consists of breaking down the meaning of a word into what are known as semantic components or features.
A lexeme can be analyzed by the componential analysis based on notation that has it. For example, the word “father” has a component of meaning /+human/, /+ adult /, /+ male /, /+ married/ , and /+ have a child/; and the word “mother” has
[image:35.595.112.515.222.613.2]a component of meaning /+ human /, /+ adult /, /- male /, /+ married /, and /+ have a child /. When is compared between the component of father and mother is visible as the following table.
Table 1: The componential analysis of the meaning words: father and mother
Description: The sign (+) means have components, and the sign (-) means it has no component.
From the table shows that the different meaning of the father and mother only on the components of meaning /male/; father has a component of meaning male, whereas them other does not have it. To No. Components of
meaning
Father Mother
1. Human + +
2. Adult + +
3. Males + -
4. Married + +
more clearly, consider the analysis component of meaning the words: man, woman, boy, girl, and bull.
Table 2: The componential analysis of the meaning words: Man, woman, boy, girl and bull
No. Components of meaning
Boy Girl Man Woman Bull
1. Human + + + + -
2. Adult - - + + -
3. Male + - + - +/-
The table shows that man, woman, boy, girl have a component of meaning / + human /, while the bull has not a component of meaning / + adult /, while the boy and the bull has not a component of meaning / - adult /. Furthermore, it appears that man and the boy have a component of meaning / + male /, while the woman and girl have not component of meaning / - male /. And the bull may has or has no because the bull including male and female.40
Componential analysis can provide some benefits for semantic analysis.
40
28
The benefits of componential analysis are:
1. The words meaning of componential analysis can provide the answer of why some sentence is right and the other is wrong. There is some sentences which is an anomaly.
2. Through the componential analysis, we can have prediction the relation of words. The relation of the meaning can be generally divided into some types: synonymy, antonym, contradiction, and hyponymy.
3. Componential analysis to give an explicit representation of the systematic relation between words.41
4. According to Bierwisch (1970), Katz (1972) and Leech (1974) who have a designed a logic system that componential analysis may be used as experiment tool device that those sentences are analytic, anomaly, contradictions. 42
41
Ruth M, Kempson, Semantic Theory (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p.18.
42
29
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. Data Description
[image:38.595.108.517.241.746.2]In data description, the writer tabulates the selected data of the lexemes of healthy which are taken from the Health text in The Global Health and Travel Magazine include the types of semantic field. The selected data can be tabulated as follows:
Table 3: The Data of Types of Semantic Field, Lexemes, and the Sentence.
No. Types of Semantic
Field Lexeme The Sentence
1. Medical Treatment
Surgery
“The photo sharing phenomenon was also identified as a contributing factor to the uptick in demand for facial plastic surgery”
Therapy
“How has
hormone-replacement therapy (HRT) advanced from treating menopausal symptoms to become an anti-aging aesthetic treatment?”
Biopsy “Historically, estrogen-replacement biopsy has received a lot of attention.”
Chemotherapy
“In newly-diagnosed lung cancer patients with EGR mutation, one tablet of Afatinib a day is more
effective than
chemotherapy”. Radiotherapy
“Treatment options, including
whether surgery,
radiotherapy, or
30
2.
Chronic/non-communicable illness
Leukemia
“Cord blood also contains blood-forming stem cells that have the potential to treat disease such as certain types of leukemia or lymphoma, aplastic anaemia and some immunodeficiency”.
Diabetes
“Researchers at McMaster University have found a novel way to suppress one potentially devastating side effect of statins, one of the
world‟s most widely-used
drugs for lowering cholesterol and preventing heart disease-which has been found to cause diabetes.
Heart Disease
“Researchers at McMaster University have found a novel way to suppress one potentially devastating side effect of statins, one of the
world‟s most widely-used
drugs for lowering cholesterol and preventing heart disease-which has been found to cause diabetes.
Cancer
“Breast cancer remains the leading cause of death in women and the most common cancer in women.”
Stroke
“Swedish scientists have devised a helmet which can quickly detect if a patient has had a stroke.”
3. Medical Center
Hospital
The hospital has seen many great achievements since the second half of 2013, and Tan attributes these successes to the team‟s ability to leverage its expertise.
Maternity Hospital
“The hospital’s maternity
Clinic
“There will always be avenues to better ourselves- this is way we promote regular conversations, to spearhead new clinic solutions and to raise the standard of care extended to our patients,” she says.
4. Healthy Occupations
Doctor
“Dr. Kwong says she realized that a percentage of many young women in Asia who develop breast cancer likely inherited the genes that cause the disease.”.
Nurse
“Women are no longer just homemakers or caretakers; they are also providers – teachers, nurse, lawmakers, businesspeople, and activists, with a wide range of abilities and experience.
Dentist
“Professional whitening can be done in the clinic by a dentist or by the patient at home, using prescription products.”
5. The Liquid of Body
Blood
“Finding out if the stroke is due to a leaky blood clot is a prerequisite for proper treatment.”
Urine
“The team successfully
identified biomarkers that could assess the exposure of 62 additional chemicals which are present in blood, urine, or other biological samples.”
Sperm
“At present, viable sperm for IVF procedures are usually chosen by looking at them through a microscope.”
6.
The Types of Medicine
Drug
“However, his team found increased risk of diabetes is associated with use of the drug.”
32
B. Data Analysis
[image:42.595.91.570.208.581.2]1. The Semantic Field of “Medical Treatment”
Table 4: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field of “Medical Treatment The
Semantic Properties
The LEXEMES
SURGERY THERAPY BIOPSY CHEMOTHERAPY RADIOTHERAPY
Medical health check
+ +/_ + + +
Something that people do or cause to happen
+ +/_ + + +
Something that happens at a given place and time
+ _ + + _
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 4 are hypernyms of medical treatment.43
The table above explained that surgery means a medical health check, something that people do or cause to happen and also something happens at given place and time. According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine surgery is the treatment of disease, injury, or other disorders by direct physical intervention, usually with instruments.44 Operative surgery involves incision (cutting) into the skin or other organ, inspection, removal of diseased
43
Wwww.wordnet2.1browser.com
44
34
tissue or organs, relief of obstruction, replacement of structure to their normal position, redirection of body channels, transplantation of tissue or whole organs, and implantation of mechanical or electronic devices.45 Surgery may be minor or major. Minor operations are usually, but not always, performed using local anesthesia. Major operations are usually performed using general anesthesia, although local anesthesia is sometimes used.46 In recent years there has been an increasing trend toward further sub specialization; some surgeons now confine their practice to such narrow limits as surgery of the hands, the cornea, the same blood vessels, or the skin. From both of meanings above the researcher concludes that surgery is the treatment of disease, injury and taken in hospital.
Therapy means a medical health check this therapy could be something happen to patient and could be to prevent disease on patient‟s body. According
to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine therapy is the treatment of any disease or abnormal physical or mental condition.47 Examples of therapy include radiation therapy for cancer and psychotherapy for psychiatric disorders.
Biopsy means a medical health check to patient‟s body, something that people do or cause to happen and also something happens at given place and time. According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine biopsy is a diagnostic test in which tissue or cells are removed from the body for
45
Ibid. 956
46
Ibid, p.957
47
examination under the microscope.48 Most of the procedures are minor and require no sedation, but some require anesthesia. From both of meanings there is correlation that biopsy is an accurate method of diagnosing many illnesses, including cancer.
Chemotherapy means a medical health check to body‟s patient, something that people do or cause to happen and also something happens at given place and time. This treatment is done when the patient was conscious and continually. According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine chemotherapy is the treatment of infections of malignant disease by drugs that act selectively on the cause the disorder, but which may have substantial effects on normal tissue.49 Infections are treated by antibiotics, which may be bacterial (killing harmful bacteria), or bacteriostatic (stopping further bacterial growth and allowing the body‟s immune system to take over and destroy the bacteria).50
One problem with chemotherapy is that natural selection leads to the emergence of resistant bacteria or cells. This effect is minimized by the discriminatory use of antibiotics, and, in cancer chemotherapy, by giving several different types of drugs simultaneously. A further problem with cancer chemotherapy is that drugs act on all rapidly dividing cells, not just tumor cells.51 Thus, they affect the bone marrow, the intestinal lining, the hair follicles (sometimes causing baldness), and the mouth, sometimes causing severe side effects. Antibiotics act more selectively because bacteria have a different structure from human cells, making side effects
48
Ibid, p.170.
49
Ibid, p.258.
50
Ibid,p. 258
51
36
less of a problem for the patient.52 From both of chemotherapy‟s explanation the researcher conclude there is a similar meaning that chemotherapy is treatment for when the patient was conscious and continually illness.
Radiotherapy means medical health check to body‟s patient something that people do or cause to happen and also something happens at given place and time. This treatment is done with frequently of time. According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine radiotherapy is treatment of cancer (an occasionally other diseases) by X rays or other sources of radioactivity, both of which produce ionizing radiation.53 The radiation, as it passes through the diseased tissue, destroys or swallows the development of abnormal cells. Provided the correct dosage of radiation is given, normal cells suffer little or no damage.54
From the description of the table above, it can be concluded that the lexeme “therapy” is superordinate of radiotherapy and chemotherapy. The table
above shows that radiotherapy and chemotherapy have a close meaning, because it have some component, except on the using material (chemical substances/x-ray), radiotherapy uses X-ray whereas chemotherapy uses chemical substances in treatment to patients. Besides that the lexeme surgery and biopsies have a same meaning (synonym) because the component of each feature on the table are the same.
52
Clayman B Charles, The American Medical Association; Encyclopedia of Medicine, New York, Random House New York (1989), p.258
53
Ibid, p. 846
54
2. The Semantic Field of “Chronic Illness”
Table 5: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field of “Chronic Illness”
The Semantic Properties
The Lexemes LEUKEMIA DIABETES HEART
DEASE CANCER STROKE
Being
long-lasting + + + + +
Developing slowly or of long duration)
+ + + + +
Marked by gradual
deterioration of organs and cells along with loss of function
+ + + + +
Diseases of old
age _ _ _ +/_ +
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 5 are hypernyms of chronic illness.
From the explanations of the table Leukemia means a disease being a lost-lasting in human‟s body, the disease can attack young or old people no matter
how old are they .According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine, any of several types of cancer in which there is usually a disorganized proliferation of white blood cells in the bone marrow (from which all blood cells originate) one of them is leukemia.55 The production of red blood cells, platelets, and normal white blood cells are impaired as they are crowded out
55
38
from the marrow by the leukemia cells.56 Other organs, such as the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, testes, or brain, may cease to function properly as they become infiltrated by the leukemic cells. The number of leukemic cells circulating in the blood may be high.57
From the explanations above both of meanings have correlation this disease can make the patient death because attack the white blood cells.
Diabetes means a Marked by gradual deterioration of organs and cells along with loss of function. According to the American Medical Association Encyclopedia of
Medicine diabetes, bronze is a rare disease in which excessive amounts of iron are deposited in tissues such as the liver, pancreas, and skin. Its name comes from the bronze skin coloration and diabetes mellitus that usually develop in people who suffer this disorder.58
From the definitions above there is similar meaning the disease can make patient death because the patient always is thirsty and produces a lot of urine.
Heart disease means an unhealed disease that can cause death; heart disease attacks the blood circulation system that is caused by high cholesterol amount in body. So this interfere circulation of blood from or to the heart. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine about 700 babies per 100,000 are born with a congenital heart defect.59 The errors of development leading to defects arise early in the life of the embryo. In most cases,
56
Ibid,. p.635
57
Ibid,.p. 635
58
Ibid, p. 349
59
there is no known cause. Of known causes the most significant is rubella in the mother during the first of pregnancy. This can be prevented by vaccination. About one third of babies with Down’s syndrome have a congenital heart defect, and congenital heart disease often accompanies other birth defects.60
From both of meanings, heart disease meaning and literal meaning have correlation that heart disease attacks the blood circulation systems of human body and cause the patient death.
Cancer means a serious disease in which grows in a cell, this disease is caused by virus that attacks the cell system of the body. Cancer is difficult to be cured, so it can cause death to the patient. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine cancers are not the only type of abnormal growth, or neoplasm, that occur in the body.61 However, a cancer differs from a benign in two tumors, such as a wart or lymphoma, in two important ways. As it grows, it spreads and infiltrates the tissues around it and may block passageways, destroy nerves and erode bone. Cells from the cancer may spread via the blood vessels and lymphatic channels to other parts of the body, where these metastases for new, satellite tumors that grow independently.62
From the explanations above the cancer attacks the cells of body and can cause the patient death.
60
Ibid, p. 518
61
Ibid, p. 227
62
40
Stroke means a serious illness that caused death, stroke attacks the body‟s nervous system, because someone has high cholesterol amount so it can interfere stimulus of blood from or the brain. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine strokes are fatal in about third of cases and are a leading cause of death in developed countries.63 Possible complications of a major stroke include pneumonia and the formation of blood clots in the veins of the leg, which may travel to the artery supplying the lung to cause a potentially fatal pulmonary embolism.64
“Virulence Illness” is superordinate or the lexemes cancer and leukemia. It
explains that cancer and leukemia have a close meaning because it has some component, except on the forming process (attack the blood circulation system). The other lexemes which have close meaning are stroke and heart disease, those lexemes has the same component except on the system is attacked (the body‟s
nervous/ the blood circulation system).
63
Ibid, p. 947
64
3. The Semantic Field of “Medical Center”
Table 6: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field of “medical center”
The Semantic Properties The Lexemes
HOSPITAL MATERNITY
HOSPITAL
CLINIC
Medical checkup area + + +
Physical entity + +/_ +/_
A feature of the mental life of a living organism
+/_ _ _
The work of inquiring into something thoroughly and systematically
+ + +/_
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 4 are hypernyms of medical center.
From the explanations of the table hospital means a medical checkup area, physical entity, the work of inquiring into something thoroughly and systematically. The hospital is opening every day, provides Opname services and usually owned by the government. According to Free medical of dictionary hospital is an institution which is managed, staffed and equipped for providing healthcare services, including in patient care, surgery, emergent and urgent care and has facilities for the diagnosis and treatment of disease.65 Many hospitals are
65
42
owned and run by religious orders.66 Though graduate medical education is conducted in many hospitals, teaching hospitals generally have a close affiliation with universities and medical school. Far more are community hospitals that depend on community-generated contributions.67 From both of meanings there is correlation that hospital is owned by government or others institutions.
Maternity Hospital means a treatment place that provides service for birth it is opening everyday (available in 24 hours) and has many doctors and nurses. It is usually owned by privacy. According to Free dictionary, maternity hospital is a hospital that provides care for women during pregnancy and childbirth and for newborn infants.68 From both meanings the writer concludes there is similar meaning maternity hospital is providing care for women during pregnancy.
Clinic means a treatment place that owned by privacy. The most of clinic have a complete maintenances facility but clinic not provide opname services. According to Oxford dictionary, clinic is a building or part of a hospital where people can go for special medical treatment or advice.69
The table above shows that the lexemes HOSPITAL is superordinate of maternity hospital and clinic.
66
Clayman B Charles, The American Medical Association; Encyclopedia of Medicine, New York, Random House New York (1989),p.547
67
Ibid,. p. 547.
68
The Free Dictionary. Accessed on August 16th 2011, http://www.thefreedictionary.com/maternity+hospital.
69
4. The Semantic Field of “Healthy Occupations”
Table 7: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field “Healthy Occupation”
The Semantic Properties
The Lexemes
DOCTOR NURSE DENTIST
The principal activity in people‟s
life that people do to earn money + + +
Serving patients + + +
Fundamental quantity + + +
Take care of people‟s teeth _ _ +
Providing care to patients +/_ + +/_
Can set up a privacy clinic / institution
+ _ +
Responsible to patient + _ +
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 4 are hypernyms of healthy occupation.
44
be a physician, psychologist, biomedical scientist, dentist, or veterinarian.70 In nonmedical context, a professor of history might be addressed as a doctor, an eminent theologian might be named a doctor of a church, and a person awarded an honorary doctorate by a college or university might also be called a doctor.71
Nurse means a person has principal activity that people do to earn money, works in hospital to serve patient with providing care to patients but nurse cannot give prescribe medication to patient and has not a responsible to make a patients get well, beside that a nurse cannot set up a privacy clinic or medics institution. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medical nurse is a person trained in nursing care.72 Registered nurses (RNs) are registered and licensed by a state to care for the sick and to promote health. They work in hospitals, nursing homes, physicians‟ offices, clinics, workplaces, schools, and patients‟ homes.
Types of nurses
1. Nurse Midwifery has a special training in prenatal and postnatal care, labor, and delivery.
2. Nurse Practitioners or nurse clinicians are trained to provide health services (such as preventive care, physical examinations, and health counseling) under the supervision of a physician.
70
http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9237
71 Ibid.
72
3. Licensed Practical Nurses (LPNs), who are trained to provide basic care for patients under the supervision of physicians and RNs.
Nurses‟ aides assist nurses in hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics.73
Dentist means a person has principal activity that people do to earn money, that works in hospital to serve patient with take care of people‟s teeth and has a responsible to make a patient get well. A dentist can set up a privacy clinic or institution. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine dentist is the equivalent of the family practitioner for teeth.74 Dentist perform regular checkups, clean teeth, fill cavities, extract teeth, correct the problems with tooth alignment, and provide and fit bridges and/or dentures to replace missing teeth. They also check for cancer of the mouth, perform cosmetic procedures and give general advice on how to care for the teeth and gums.75
The table shows that the lexemes “doctor” is superordinate of the lexemes
dentist.
73
Ibid.. p. 735
74
Ibid, p.324
75
46
[image:55.595.111.518.155.574.2]5. The Semantic Field of “ The Liquid of Body”
Table 8: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field of “The Liquid of the Body”
The Semantic Properties The Lexemes
BLOOD URINE
A substance that is liquid at
room temperature and pressure + +
A substance in the fluid state of matter having no fixed shape but a fixed volume
+ +
That which has mass and occupies space; "an atom is the smallest indivisible unit of matter
+ +
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 4 are hypernyms of healthy occupation.
From the explanation of the table blood means a substance that is liquid at room temperature and pressure, a substance in the fluid state of matter having no fixed shape but a fixed volume, which has mass and occupies space; "an atom is the smallest indivisible unit of matte. Blood is a much spread in human body and has a red color. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medical blood is the sticky red fluid that circulates in our veins and arteries.76 Almost half the volume of blood consists of cells, which include red blood cells
76
(or erythrocytes), white blood cells (or leukocytes), and platelets or thrombocytes.77
Urine means blood means a substance that is liquid at room temperature and pressure, a substance in the fluid state of matter having no fixed shape but a fixed volume, which has mass and occupies space; "an atom is the smallest indivisible unit of matte. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine urine is the pale yellow fluid produced by the kidneys and excreted from the body via the ureters, bladder, and urethra.78 Urine carriers waste products, and excessive water or chemical substances from the body.
The table above shows there are no lexemes which have a close meaning because there is no similar component of each other.
77
Ibid,. p. 182.
78
48
6. The Semantic Field of “Medicine”
Table 9: The Componential Analysis from Semantic Field of “Medicine”
The Semantic Properties The Lexemes
DRUG TABLET
The science of dealing with the maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of disease
+ +
A substance that is used as a medicine
or narcotic +/_ _
The branches of medical science that
deal with nonsurgical techniques _ +
The characteristic features of the semantic properties on the table 4 are hypernyms of medicine.
From the explanations of the table drug means the science of dealing with the maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of disease, a substance that is used as a medicine or narcotic. According to The American Medical Association Encyclopedia of Medicine drugs include prescribe medicines, over-the-counter remedies, and the recreational, social, and illicit use of drugs, such as cocaine.79 Many foods and drinks contain small quantities of substances classed as drugs tea, coffee, and cola drinks, for example, all contain caffeine, which is both a stimulant and diuretic drug.80
79
Ibid, p. 376
80
[image:57.595.107.514.172.566.2]Tablet means the science of dealing with the maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of disease, a substance that is used as a medicine or narcotic, the branches of medical science that deal with
