By:
ANNA KHOIRUNNISA NIM. 107026001247
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
“SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH” JAKARTA
AN ANALYSIS OF COHESION ON EDITOR’S NOTE IN U.S. NEWS AND WORLD REPORT MAGAZINE
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Strata One
By:
ANNA KHOIRUNNISA NIM. 107026001247
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
“SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH” JAKARTA
i
Anna Khoirunnisa, An Analysis of Cohesion on Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine. Thesis: Letters and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University “Syarif Hidayatullah” Jakarta, 2011.
In this research, the writer discusses the using of cohesion devices on Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine. The data are collected from Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine from three editions, they are May 2010, June 2010, and August 2010 edition. This study is aimed at finding out the kinds of cohesion devices that appear on Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine and degree of cohesiveness in it.
The writer uses a qualitative method in this research. The writer explains some theories of cohesion, and then the writer collects the data of cohesion from three texts of Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine. Based on M.A.K Halliday and Raquiya Hassan’s theory, the kinds of cohesion device that appear on the text are analyzed one by one to know the cohesiveness degree in it. To focus on the study, the writer limits the problem by focusing the research on searching the cohesiveness degree by analyzing cohesion on three texts of editor’s note in U.S. News and World Report magazine.
ii
APPROVEMENT
AN ANALYSIS OF COHESION ON EDITOR’S NOTE IN U.S. NEWS AND WORLD REPORT MAGAZINE
A Thesis
Submitted to Letters and Humanities Faculty In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of Strata One
ANNA KHOIRUNNISA NIM. 107026001247
Approved by:
Drs. SAEFUDDIN, M. Pd. NIP: 196407101993031006
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
LETTERS AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
“SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH” JAKARTA
iii Name : Anna Khoirunnisa
NIM : 107026001247
Title : An Analysis of Cohesion on Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine.
The thesis entitled “An Analysis of Cohesion on Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine” has been defended before the Letters and Humanities Faculty’s Examination Committee on July 6, 2011. The thesis has already been accepted as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Strata One.
Jakarta, July 6, 2011.
The Examination Committee
Signature Date
1. Drs. Asep Saefuddin, M.Pd (Chair person) ___________ ________ NIP:196407 199303 1 006
2. Elve Oktafiyani M.Hum (Secretary) ___________ ________ NIP:19781003 200112 2 002
3. Drs. Asep Saefuddin, M.Pd (Advisor) ___________ ________ NIP:196407 199303 1 006
4. Drs. H. Abdul Hamid, M.Ed (Examiner I) ___________ ________ NIP:150 181 922
iv
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text.
Jakarta, May 2011
v
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.
All praises due to Allah SWT, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the universe, who has bestowed upon the writer completing this paper. Peace and salutation be upon our prophet Muhammad SAW, who has saved the believers from destruction into safety and has guided them to the right way of Islam.
This paper presented to the English Letters Department, Letters and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University “Syarif Hidayatullah” Jakarta, as a partial of requirements for the Degree of Strata one.
The writer would like to express her deeply thanks to Drs. Saefuddin, M.Pd. as her advisor who has given suggestions, corrections, supports, and also criticism until the writer can finish this thesis, because without his guidance, patience, support and encouragement, this thesis is never completed.
In this opportunity, the writer also would like to convey her deepest gratitude to the following amazing people:
1. Dr. Abd. Wahid Hasyim, M.Ag., the Dean of Letters and Humanities Faculty.
2. Drs. A. Saefuddin, M.Pd., the Head of English Letters Department and Mrs. Elve Octaviany, M.Hum., the Secretary of English Letters Department.
vi
Anasy who has given his time, guidance, kindness, and contribution in helping her to finish her thesis.
4. All the librarians of Letters and Humanities Faculty, main library of UIN Jakarta especially American Corner’s staff, and PKBB Unika Atmajaya. 5. The writer also wants to say thank you very much to her beloved parents:
Ma’shoem Eny (Alm) and Surati who always pray for her, and give much loves, especially her lovely mother, thank you so much for her love, affection, support, and advice during the time of study and the process of making the paper. “thanks Mom, I’m very glad to be your daughter”. 6. The writer’s brothers, Mas Ferry and Mas Aan who always give all of her
necessities and has financed her study in the university. Their sacrifices will never be equally paid. Her beloved sister in law, Mba Edeh who always accompanies her in sad or happy and gives support in writer’s life, and her cute nieces, Lisa and Rayna for funniest thing they brought.
7. The writer’s endless love, Muhammad Nida’ Fadlan, S.S. who always gives support, care, and much loves to her. He is every breath that she takes and every step that she makes. “thank you for everything Aa”
8. The writer’s friends; Ipes, Aisyah, Nopi, Elis, Yasir, Singgih, Bryan, Nina, Tika, Memes, Nisfu, Ugi, Ka Oci and KKN 100 for laughs and pray sincerely in every part of the writer’s life.
10.All the staff and friends in International College and English World Institute who have given many experiences, knowledge, and support to her.
Jakarta, May 26th 2011
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ………....… i
APPROVEMENT ………... ii
LEGALIZATION ………... iii
DECLARATION ………... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ………. v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….. viii
LIST OF TABLES ……… x
LIST OF APPENDICES ……….. xi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...……….. 1
A. Background of the Research ...…..………. 1
B. Focus of the Study …...…..………... 4
C. Research Questions ...…..………...………... 4
D. Significance of the Study …….…..………...……. 4
E. Research Methodology ...…..…………..………….. 4
1. Objective of the Study ……….. 4
2. Method of the Study ...…..………...…………. 5
3. Data Analysis ...…..………...………... 5
4. Unit of Analysis ...………...………... 5
5. Instrument of the Research ...…..………...….. 6
F. Time and Place of the Research ...…..………...… 6
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...…..……….. 7
A. Text ……… 7
B. Cohesion ……… 8
C. Grammatical Cohesion ………... 9
2. Ellipsis ……….. 10
3. Reference ………. 11
4. Conjuction ……… 14
D. Lexical Cohesion ……… 15
1. Reiteration ……… 16
2. Collocation ………... 23
E. Lexical Cohesiveness Degree ……… 24
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH FINDINGS ...…..………. 25
A. Data Description ...…..……… 25
B. Data Analysis ...…..………. 28
CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ...…..……… 60
A. Conclusion ...…..……….. 60
B. Suggestion ...…..……… 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 63
x
LIST OF TABLES
1. Grammatical Cohesion that Appear in the First Text ….………...……… 25
2. Lexical Cohesion that Appear in the First Text ………...……….………. 26
3. Grammatical Cohesion that Appear in the Second Text ………...……… 26
4. Lexical Cohesion that Appear in the Second Text ………...………. 27
5. Grammatical Cohesion that Appear in the Third Text ..………...……… 27
6. Lexical Cohesion that Appear in the Third Text ………..……. 27
7. Summary of Data of Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion that Appear in Three Texts. ……… 28
8. Degree of Cohesiveness in Text One …………... 54
9. Degree of Cohesiveness in Text Two ...……… 55
xi
1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
Human always communicates to others in their daily activities. Communication is used by them in their speech community to interact with others in communicative events. The event itself may involve spoken (oral) language or written language.1 These kinds of language are called text. Text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.2 Spoken and written text can be used in many different communicative purposes, such as a sermon, a casual conversation, a shopping transaction, a poem, a newspaper advertisement, a wall poster, a shopping list, a novel, etc.
Besides those communicative purposes above, there is a kind of written text that has not been mentioned before. It is magazine. Magazine has many types, such as weekly and monthly magazine. One of the monthly magazines is U.S. News and World Report Magazine. U.S. News and World Report Magazine is monthly magazine that is published in America. It contains photographs, pictures and impressive articles about education, health, politics, and business in America.
1
David Nunan, IntroducingDiscourseAnalysis ( London: Penguin, 1993), p. 6. 2
Based on the content category, magazine (like U.S. News and World Report Magazine) can be divided into three groups. They are news, opinions, and advertisements. News group covers direct news, picture news, and investigation news. Opinion group covers articles, editorial, and editor’s note.
Editor’s note is almost the same as editorial. The difference between them is in the writer. Editorial is usually written by an editor or editorial staffs, it can be editor’s opinions or editorial staffs’ opinions. It is different than editor’s note which is always written by editor, so it is just editor’s opinions.
Both of them are like written texts but are very different from spoken text. In written text, as editor’s notes, we need to understand the grammar and vocabulary used in constructing the sentences which make up each text. The sentences that make up the text not only have to be grammatically correct but also have to make sense because grammatically correct sentences alone will not ensure that the text itself makes sense. To make sense, it must have meaning. As Halliday said that a text is best regarded as a semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning.3 In addition to the structure and meaning of individual sentences, we need to know how the sentences relate to one another. And to know it, we use cohesion.
Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing
3
3
and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text.4 In order to be easier to understand it, look paragraph below that is taken from Editor’s note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine, August 2010 edition.
“Comarrow zeroed in on how it handles the baffling diseases known as cystic fibrosis and shows how rigorous the caregivers are about finding best practices while giving its young patients humane treatment. The photos by Charlie Archambault give you a frank understanding of the daily struggles of a child with a chronic disease that no set of statistics could ever convey.”5
In the above paragraph, the word baffling disease has the same meaning as
chronic disease. Both of them mean disease that cannot be healed, because it is in serious condition. Because baffling and chronic have same meaning, they are called near synonymy. The phrases baffling disease and chronic disease are specific vocabularies for health sector. By understanding the meaning of every word (using cohesion), readers are easier to understand a text. So, the writer takes some texts from Editor’s Note in U.S. News and World Report Magazine to be researched its cohesion because those texts discuss about many different sectors, such as health, education, politic, and business which are assumed by the writer as difficult sectors to be understood by people who aren’t common in those sectors everyday.
The writer’s hypothesis is there are many kinds of cohesion devices on editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report Magazine in order to make those texts have cohesiveness and can be understood easily by the readers. This library research will prove the validity of writer’s hypothesis.
4
Ibid., p. 4. 5
Bryan Kelly, “Not Just by the Numbers”, U.S. News and World Report Magazine (August 2010),
B. Focus of the Study
Based on background of the study above, the writer limits the problem by focusing the research on searching the cohesiveness degree by analyzing cohesion on editor’s note in U.S. News and World Report magazine. The editor’s notes were selected purposively as much as three times editions, they are May 2010, June 2010, and August 2010 edition.
C. Research Questions
Based on the problem limitation above, the writer formulates the problem in two research questions, as follows:
1. What kinds of cohesion appear on the editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report magazine?
2. To what extent of cohesiveness degree done by editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report Magazine?
D. Significance of the Study
This study is expected to have some benefits for the readers. The writer hopes this research can give some contributions for linguistic field, especially in grammatical and lexical cohesion that often used by mass media. So, this research is useful for the next researcher who wants to make this thesis as one of his or her reference for their research.
E. Research Methodology 1. Objective of the Study
5
a. To know the kinds of cohesion that often appear on editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report magazine.
b. To know how far is cohesiveness degree of editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report Magazine have.
2. Method of the Study
The writer will analyze and identify the kinds of grammatical and lexical cohesion that appear on editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report magazine. The method which is used in this research is a qualitative method. In this method, the writer describes and analyzes the data from the selected references by using verbal explanation.
3. Technique of Analysis
The acquired data in this research will be analyzed through descriptive analysis technique based on the discourse analysis of M.A.K Halliday and Raquiya Hassan’s theory. First, the writer takes data from U.S. News and World Report Magazine. They are three editor’s notes from three editions. Then, the writer reads and analyzes the lexical cohesion in those texts by using M.A.K Halliday and Raquiya Hassan’s theory and other similar supported theory.
4. Unit of Analysis
The units of data analysis in the research are three editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report magazine. The writer selects the texts from May 2010, June 2010, and August 2010 edition. Here are the titles of the texts:
b. Text 2 Your Money and Your Government, Summer (June) 2010; and c. Text 3 Not Just by The Numbers, August 2010.
5. Instrument of the Research
The instrument of the research is the writer herself as the subject of the study by collecting, reading and analyzing the acquired datas. Those data are collected from the editor’s notes in U.S. News and World Report magazine.
F. Time and Place of the Research
7 CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Text
The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole. A text may be spoken or writen, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue. It may be anything from a single proverb to a whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-discussion on a committee.1 Halliday and Hassan’s opinion above can be concluded that something can be called a text if it is used for communication. This case makes differentiation between text and a disconnected sequence sentences. A disconnected sequence sentences are just unrelated sentences. Although their grammar are good, they are very difficult to be understood, because their meaning are unrelated each other. While, a text is usually sentences which are related grammatically and semantically. In other words, grammar and meaning of the text are in good relation, so, the reader or listener will be easier to understand what the writer or speaker means. The elements of the text which are related grammatically and semantically is called cohesion.
Text is a way to convey information from the speakers to the listeners or the writers to the readers. Sometimes, it will be very difficult to catch the information that is meant by the speaker or the writer if the listener or the reader
1
attempts to get it by translating the words one by one. Even, they don’t really understand some vocabularies of the language that is used (e.g. English). To avoid this situation, the text must have cohesion.
B. Cohesion
Cohesion is an important element in a discourse or written text. Cohesion is connection between an element with another element in a text so that it has good comprehension. To make this comprehension in a text, the elements can be connected by their grammar or structure and their lexicon or vocabulary. If it is connected by their grammar, it means that it is used grammatical cohesion, and if it is connected by their vocabulary, it means that it is used lexical cohesion. Lexical cohesion makes the listeners or the readers understand what the speakers or the writers mean, because lexical cohesion gives specific meaning through the vocabulary. A discourse or written text must be arranged compactly and cohesively, so it needs cohesion, because cohesion is a grammatical (syntactic) and lexical (semantic) relationship between sentences in a discourse. If someone has good capability and ability in cohesion, he or she can produce a good discourse. A good discourse can be seen from the continuity of its information or the meaning unity of it. Because of the meaning unity is made by cohesion, cohesion is called a semantic relation. Halliday and Hassan said in their book
Cohesion in English that:
9
Lexicogrammatical is the choice of words and grammatical structures. Within the stratum there is no hard-and-fast division between vocabulary and grammar; the guiding principle in language is that the more general meanings are expressed through the grammar, and the more specific meaning through the vocabulary. Cohesive relations fit into the same overall pattern. Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary. We can refer therefore to grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.”2
Halliday and Hassan’s statements above conclude that cohesion is divided into two main parts: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Halliday and Hassan also make some kinds of grammatical cohesion. They are substitution, ellipsis, reference, and conjunction. While, lexical cohesion contains reiteration and collocation.
C. Grammatical Cohesion 1. Substitution
Substitution is the replacement of a word group sentence segment by a dummy word. The reader or listener can fill in the correct element based on the preceding. There are three types of substitution, that of a noun, a verb, and a clause.
a. Noun Substitution
Noun substitution is the replacement of a noun in a sentence by an appropriate dummy word. The noun substitution is usually marked by the use of “ones and same”.
Example:
2
1) These biscuits are stale. Get the fresh ones.3
2) I like that green t-shirt. Please take me the same thing.
b. Verbal Substitution
Verbal substitution is the replacement of a verb of a sentences by an appropriate dummy word. The verb substitution is commonly signaled by the verb “do”.4
Example:
1) I do really like those glittering fruits. 2) I didn’t understand about her life concept.
c. Clausal Substitution
Clausal substitution is the replacement of a clause of a sentence by an appropriate dummy word. The clause substitution is commonly marked by the clause “so and not”.
Example:
1) - John will not come to Juliette’s party tomorrow as he said that he didn’t really have a good stamina.
- It seems so.
2) - I think you are a good boy. - I am not.
2. Ellipsis
It is the omission of a word or a part of a sentence is closely related to substitution. Ellipsis can be described as “substitution by zero”. In the case of
3
Jan Renkema. A Discourse Study: An Introductory Textbook. (Philadelphia:John Benyamins
Publishing Company, 1993), p.32. 4
11
ellipsis, the division is normally used is the same as that applied to substitution; nominal (1), verbal (2), and clausal ellipsis (3).5
Example:
1) These monkeys are naughty. Those are calm. 2) He joined the contest, but you didn’t.
3) Who will hang out with me tonight? You? 3. Reference
In general, the dummy word is reference. Substitution and ellipsis deal with the relationship between grammatical unit: words, sentence parts, and clauses. In the case of reference, the meaning of a dummy word can be determined by what is imparted before or after the occurrence of the dummy word. In general, the dummy word is a pronoun. There are three kinds of reference. They are personal, demonstrative, and comparative.6
a. Personal Reference
It is used to express the category of personals includes theferebc three classes of personal pronouns, possessive determiners (ususally called “possessive adjective), and possessive pronouns. Here are a number of personal references by using the term “person”.
Person Head Modifier
1st person singular I Me My Mine
1st person plural We Us Our Ours
2nd person singular You You Your Yours 2nd person plural You You Your Yours
2nd person male He Him His His
2nd person female She Her Her Hers
3rd person plural They Them Their Theirs
3rd person object It It Its Its
Generalized person One One One’s Ones For examples:
1) Angella has met someone’s bag in the street. She is now trying to return it to the owner.
2) Angella’s new achievement as the best model of the year has raised her popularity. Her boyfriend must be so proud of her.
3) Those clothes are Angella’s. My son told me that those are hers.
b. Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is used to express the location of a process in space or time by using here, there, now, and then. Furthermore, to express the location of something, this, these, that, those, and then are used.7
Example:
1) I am trying hard to get a branch manager position in my company. 2) That is being tried by some employees now.
7
13
The use of demonstrative reference that above refers to branch manager position, meanwhile another demonstrative reference now refers to the time of the discourse.
c. Comparative Reference
It is used to express the similarity, identity, and differences of a text.8 Types of comparative reference:
1) Genetic (deictic) refers to identity, similarity, and difference. It also has non-identity, non-similarity.
i. Identity: same, equal, identical, and identically. ii. Similarity: such similar, so similarly, and likewise. iii. Difference: other, different else, differently, otherwise. 2) Particular: enumerative and epithet.
i. Enumerative: it is used to refer to the quantity or quality of the reference. E.g.: more, fewer, less, further, additional, so-as-equally, quantifier.
ii. Epithet: to express by means of adjectives and adverb in some comparative form. Form: less-equally + comparative adjectives and adverbs.
Examples:
- I need more clothes for the tsunami victims. (enumerative) - His general knowledge is better than mine. (epithet)
8
4. Conjuction
Conjunction is a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following (parts of the sentences). This is usually achieved by the use of conjunctions. The following are the examples of three frequently occuring relationship; addition, causality, temporality, and adversative. 9 The relationship can be hypotactic (as in the “a” examples which combine a main clause with a subordinate clause or phrase) or paratactic (as in the “b” examples which have two main clause.
a. Addition
Addition acts to structurally, coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and is signaled through “and, also, too, furthemore, additionally, etc”. It may also act to negate the prersupposed item and signaled by “nor, and….not, either, neither”.
For instances:
1) Besides being mean, he is also hateful.
2) He no longer goes to school and is planning to look for a job.
b. Causality
Causality expresses “result, reason, and purposes” and is signaled by “so, thus, hence, therefore, consequently, for this reason, as a result, in the respect, however, etc.”. For example:
1) He is not going to school today because he is sick.
9
15
2) Mary got married to John last yearand now she’s pregnant.
c. Temporality
Temporality links the things by signaling sequence or time. Halliday and Hassan mention that the item of temporal conjunctions are only
then and and then but also next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point, etc.” 10 For example:
1) After the car had been repaired, we were able to continueour journey.
2) The car was repaired. Aftrewards we were able to continue our journey.
d. Adversative
Adversative acts to indicate “contrary to expectation” are signaled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather, etc.”. 11 Another term of adversative conjuction is disjunction “which links things of which only one can be true in the textual world.” For instance:
1) All the figures were correct; they’d been checked. Yet the total came out wrong.
D. Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion is the cohesive effect achieved by selection of vocabulary.12 Those vocabularies are arranged semantically and create continuity of meaning. This continuity makes the sentences in the text hang together. Lexical
cohesion embraces two different aspects, which are related each other. They are reiteration and collocation.
1. Reiteration
This is the repetition of a lexical item, or the occurrence of a synonym of some kind, in the context of reference; that is, where the two occurrences have the same referent.13 It can be concluded from Guy Cook’s statement above that reiteration can appear in three forms. First, it appears in the repetition of a lexical item. Second, it can be seen in the occurrence of a synonym, and the last it can be found in two occurrences that have same referent. Halliday and Hassan have different opinions, they said that:
“When we talk about reiteration, therefore, we are including not only the repetition of the same lexical item but also the occurrence of a related item, which may be anything froudym synonym or near synonym of the original to a general word dominating the entire class. Let us categorize these as above: any instance of reiteration may be (a) same word, (b) a synonym or near-synonym, (c) a superordinate or (d) a general word.” 14
The writer gets some important points from Halliday and Hassan’s explanation above that reiteration can be categorized into four forms. They are same word, a synonym or near-synonym, a superordinate, and a general word. This theory will be writer’s principal theory to analyze writer’s data in this research.
a. Repetition or Same Word
Repetition is the simplest form of lexical cohesion. In repetition, the same reference is repeated over and over again throughout the whole
13
Guy Cook, Discourse (Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1989), p. 19. 14
17
discourse makes the discourse coherent and, therefore, contributes to the cohesion. Look at the example:
John comes to the farewell party in this school. This farewell
party is held at 07.00 p.m until 12 p.m.
The word farewell party is repeated in that sentence above. Repetition is a way to maintain cohesion between sentences in a discourse. That relationship is formed by repetition of a part of sentence element. Repetition is used to maintain the idea or topic that is discussed, but, too many repetitions in a text can make reader feel bored.
b. Synonym or Near-synonym
Synonymy is generally perceived as the ‘sameness of meaning’.15 Synonymy are two or more word forms with very closely related meaning. It should be noted that idea of meaning is not necessarily total sameness. Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are:
1. student and pupil (noun) 2. buy and purchase (verb) 3. sick and ill (adjective)
4. quickly and speedily (adverb) 5. on and upon (preposition)
15
There are dictionaries of synonyms that contain many hundreds of entries, such as16:
apathetic/ phlegmatic/ passive/ sluggish/ indifferent
pedigree/ anchestry/ genealogy/ descent/ lineage
The words apathetic, phlegmatic, passive, sluggish, indifferent
mean “not interested in something”. While the words pedigree, anchestry, genealogy, descent, lineage mean “line of person in a family who lived a long time ago or family history”.
Cruse speaks about ‘a scale of synonymity’ in his book Lexical Semantics,which is pointed to by two semantic intuitions:
“the first is that certain pairs or groups of lexical items bear a special sort of semantic resemblance to one another. For example, in Dictionary of English Synonyms gives kill as a synonym of murder (but, interestingly, not vice versa). The second intuition is that some pairs of synonyms are ‘more synonymous’ than other pairs, e. g. settee and sofa are more synonymous than boundary and frontier.” 17
The writer agrees with Cruse’s opinion that there is a broader conception of the characteristics of intuitions of synonym. The first intuition tells that two or more words may have similar meaning which are often closely related but not always intersubstitutable in sentences. Like the word kill and murder. Kill can be substituted by murder, but an
accidental killing can not be substituted by murder. The second intuition explains that synonym has a degree. For example, the word boundaries
16
Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams, An Introduction to Language (Massachusetts:
Thomson Corporation Heinle, 2003), Seventh Edition, p. 181. 17
19
and frontier. According to Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary,
boundaries mean “line that marks a limit”18, while frontier means “the border between two countries”19. So, boundaries is more general than
frontier. The other instance, settee that means “sofa”, and sofa means “long comfortable seat”. It can be found that settee and sofa is more synonymous than boundaries and frontier.
Palmer is even more straightforward: he maintains that “there are no total synonyms, that no two words have exactly the same meaning”20 Modestly, there are no synonyms which have exactly the sameness meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because etymology, orthography, phonic qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others. For example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm.
Synonymy also can be distinguished by special contexts in which one member of a synonymy pair is used, but the other not. For examples,
pupil as the "aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with
student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. Although a pair of synonymy may be similar in terms of style, intensity, and dialect, they still
18
Oxford University, Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press.
2008), Fourth Edition, p. 46. 19
Ibid., p. 178. 20
are not necessarily intersubstitutable because they sometimes are different in terms of connotation.
c. Superordinate
Superordinate or hypernyms are words that refer to broad categories or general concepts. The word supposed to be more general and to include the meanings of the others is called superordinate; and the other, the more particular instances included within it is called its subordinate term or hyponymy. A superordinate can have many hyponyms. Hyponymy is the relationship between each lower term and the higher term (superordinate). For examples, the sense of animal is included in the sense of lion. Hyponymy is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon. Examples, the verb cook has many hyponyms; roast, boil, fry, grill, bake, etc. In a lexical field, hyponymy may exist at more than one level. A word may have both a hyponym and a superordinate term. For example, Word: Living ( as superordinate) has many hyponyms: bird, insects, animal, and word bird
from above can be hypernym, as follow: Hypernym : bird
Hyponyms : sparrow, hawk, crow, fowl.
21
included in the meaning of a more general word”.21 In some cases, the hyponymy may become superordinate term, when they contain more specific terms22. Some examples in English are:
1. Superordinate : Walk
Hyponymys : March, Amble, Stroll, Tramp, Stride. 2. Superordinate : Animal
Hyponymys : Mammal, Reptile. 3. Superordinate : Mammal
Hyponymys : Rodent, Ruminant. 4. Superordinate : Rodent
Hyponymys : Mouse, Rat, Porcupine. 5. Superordinate : Living
Hyponymys : Creature, Plant. 6. Superordinate : Creature
Hyponymys : Animal, Insect.
For the writer, superordinate terms play an important role in cohesion by providing writers with a more explicit means than would be possible using only pronouns (it, they, this, these, those) for linking their ideas either back to earlier pieces of text, or forward to upcoming information. While for the reader, superordinate terms tell the reader what to expect when they occur before an idea. In this fuction, superordinate
21
Charles F. Meyer, Introducing English Linguistics, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002), p. 174. 22
Muhammad Farkhan, An Introduction to Linguistics, (Jakarta: Lembaga Penelitian UIN Jakarta
terms serve as the class in definitions, and describe the items and examples presented in lists.
d. General Word
The last form of lexical cohesion that will cover here is the general word. It can be general nouns, as in ‘thing’, ‘stuff’, ‘place’, ‘person’, ‘woman’ and ‘man’, or general verbs, as in ‘do’ and ‘happen’. In a way, the general word is a higher level superordinate: it is the umbrella term that can cover almost everything. This case also has been discussed by Halliday and Hassan who make classes of general word in their book:
“The class of general noun is a small set of nouns having generalized reference within the major noun classes, those such as ‘human noun’, ‘place noun’, ‘fact noun’, and the like. Examples are:
people, person, man, woman, child, boy, girl [human]
creature [non-human animate]
thing, object [inanimate concrete count]
stuff [inanimate concrete mass]
business, affair, matter [inanimate abstract]
move [action]
place [place]
questions, idea [fact]”23
23
23
The occurrence of general word is used to refers back to a noun phrase, a verb, and refers back to a clause. They require recourse to another item that must be located earlier within the same text. No matter in English or the other language “general” item plays a significant role in making a text integrated as a whole.
2. Collocation
The term collocation will be used to refer to sequences of lexical items which habitually co-occur, but which are nonetheles fully transparent in the sense that each lexical constituent is also a semantic constituent.24 Fine weather, torrential rain, light drizzle, high winds are examples of collocations.
Gorys Keraf in his book, Diksi dan Gaya Bahasa, said that “kolokasi (collocation) adalah lingkungan leksikal dimana sebuah kata dapat
muncul”.25 For example, the word “gelap” with “malam” is collocation. The word “gelap” with word “baik” or “jahat” are not collocation. Because of that, there is a construction “malam gelap”.
Most of people know which words tend to occur with other words. One way people seem to organize their language of words is simply on the basis of collocation, or frequently occuring together.26
24
D.A. Cruse, Lexical Semantics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986), p. 40 25
Gorys Keraf, Diksi dan Gaya Bahasa (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1990), p. 33. 26
George Yule, The Study of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp.
E. Cohesiveness Degree
25 CHAPTER III RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. Data Description
In this chapter, the writer analyzes cohesion of three texts on editor’s note in U.S News and World Report Magazine. In the first text, the writer finds 2 items of substitution, 46 items of reference, 28 items of conjunction. It also has many reiteration forms. There are 3 items of repetition, 1 item of superordinate or hypernym, 2 items of general word, and 2 items of collocation. The first text doesn’t have any pairs of ellipsis and synonym. The second and third text don’t have any ellipsis form and have all of the kinds of lexical cohesion. The second text has substitution that appear twice, reference that appear 74 times, and conjunction that appear 25 times. It also has 6 repetition items, 1 pair of synonym, 1 superordinate, 2 general word items, and 1 collocation item. While the third has 3 items of repetition, 5 pairs of synonym, 2 items of general word, and 1 item of collocation. For the grammatical cohesion, the third text has 1 item of substitution, 46 items of reference, and 16 items of conjunction. For the complete data, it can be read in the table below:
Text 1: Navigating the World of Work Kind of Grammatical
Cohesion The Items
Ellipsis -
Reference
your, we, our, yourself, you, it, they, I, me, their, this, there, these, here, more, fewer, better, higher, shorter.
Conjunction and, but, next, or, also, despite, because
Table 1: Grammatical Cohesion That Appear in The First Text.
Kind of Lexical Cohesion The Items
Repetition good year, career, how. Synonym or near synonym -
Superordinate
top jobs → engineering, computer science, or
medical specialities. General word thing, people.
Collocation companies – workers, best-paying – career
Table 2: Lexical Cohesion That Appear in The First Text.
Text 2: Your Money and Your Government Kind of Grammatical
Cohesion
The Items
Substitution same, one.
Ellipsis -
Reference
We, your, it, I, their, you, our, us, me, my, that, here, now, others, more, bigger, better.
27
Table 3: Grammatical Cohesion That Appear in The Second Text.
Kind of Lexical Cohesion The Items
Repetition congress, popular, site, review, fund, think. Synonym or near synonym argue = against.
Superordinate things → your money and your government. General word folks, thing.
Collocation congress – congressman.
Table 4: Lexical Cohesion That Appear in The Second Text.
Text 3: Not Just by the Numbers Kind of Grammatical
Cohesion
The Items
Substitution one.
Ellipsis -
Reference it, they, you, I, we, our, its, your, me , my, more. Conjunction but, too, and, also.
Table 5: Grammatical Cohesion That Appear in The Third Text.
Kind of Lexical Cohesion The Items
Repetition data, hospital, think.
Superordinate -
General word everything, thing. Collocation hospital – medicine.
Table 6: Lexical Cohesion That Appear in The Third Text.
Summary of Data
Text Title S1 E R1 C1 R2 S2 H G C2
1 Navigating the World of Work
Table 7: Summary of Data of Grammatical and Lexical Cohesion that Appear in Three Texts.
29
grammatical cohesion or lexical cohesion. Finally, the writer can know the cohesiveness degrees which are in those texts.
1. Text 1: Navigating the World of Work 1.1. Grammatical Cohesion in Text One a. Paragraph one
Tough times mean finding or improving a job is a job. Nobody said
this was going to be easy. In a good year finding your dream job takes
time and energy. And this isn’t a good year. The recession may be
over from a technical standpoint, but the bleak employment picture is
a hangover we’re going to suffer through for the rest of this year and
into the next. Our issue this month is here to help.
b. Paragraph two
Our package of rankings, data, and advice assesses the state of the
career world in 2010 and offers a broad array of choices contemplate.
We look at such essential topics as the best-paying careers; how to
market yourself in the internet dominated job search sector; the best
websites to use; how to get back into the workforce when you’ve taken
time away; and how to find education alternatives to expand your
options.
c. Paragraph three
Techies rule. One thing for sure is that the tech economy has
arrived. As you can see from our list, most of the top jobs these days
science, or medical specialities. (Economists also are in high demand
somehow, despite mostly failing to forsee that predicament we’re in.
Maybe the next crop will do a better job).
d. Paragraph four
And if you can’t find a job or don’t like the oneyou have? Maybe
it’s time to go back to school. Getting an advanced degree can be a
great way to weather a recession – as the surge of interest in graduate
schools and particularly online education opportunities would suggest.
As jobs start to trickle back into the market, they are sure to require
higher skill levels. Most companies are doing more work with the
fewer people, often because the best workers have become highly
productive. The place to start is with our new America’s Best
Graduated Schools, debuting this month and online at
www.usnews.com. We have a lots of fresh, useful data about schools
and programs that will help you find the right fit. We have more
emphasis on online programs because sometimes the best choice may
be a shorter-term certificate program to enhance a specific set of
technical or management skills: Employers list exactly what they’re
looking for, and online education institutions tailor their programs to
meet the market needs. We also can show you how to pay for your
schooling. These programs are expensive and, despite the economy,
not getting any cheaper. But if you do it the right way, it can be an
31
e. Paragraph five
I’d like to get your thoughts on the state of the job market. What
are the lessons for the country and especially young people starting
out? Are we matching our education to our workforce needs? Will
there be enough good jobs to go around? Drop me a note at
editor@usnews.com. And tell your kids to do their math homework.
The word one substitute the word job as a noun. So, it’s kind of noun substitution. Besides that, there is a word don’t that is followed by word like (verb) and they are called verbal substitution. There are three kinds of references in those paragraphs above. First, personal reference in word your (5 items), we (7 items), our (6 items), yourself (1 item), you (9 items), it (3 items), they (2 items), I (1 item), me (1 item), and their (2 items). Second, demonstrative reference in word this, there, these, here. All of them appear once in the text. Third or the last reference is comparative reference that is appear in word more (2 items) and fewer (1 item). More and fewer belong to enumerative. Then, the word better, higher, and shorter belong to epithet. The word and (15 items), or (4 items) and also (2 items) is kind of addition conjunction. Because it coordinates or links by adding to the presupposed item. While the word
1.2. Lexical Cohesion in text one a. Paragraph one
Tough times mean finding or improving a job is a job. Nobody said
this was going to be easy. In a good year finding your dream job takes
time and energy. And this isn’t a good year. The recession may be
over from a technical standpoint, but the bleak employment picture is a
hangover we’re going to suffer through for the rest of this year and
into the next. Our issue this month is here to help.
b. Paragraph two
Our package of rankings, data, and advice assesses the state of the
career world in 2010 and offers a broad array of choices contemplate.
We look at such essential topics as the best-paying careers; how to
market yourself in the internet dominated job search sector; the best
websites to use; how to get back into the workforce when you’ve taken
time away; and how to find education alternatives to expand your
options.
c. Paragraph three
Techies rule. One thing for sure is that the tech economy has
arrived. As you can see from our list, most of the top jobs these days
require math and science skills, whether for engineering, computer
science, or medical specialities. (Economists also are in high demand
somehow, despite mostly failing to forsee that predicament we’re in.
33
d. Paragraph four
And if you can’t find a job or don’t like the one you have? Maybe
it’s time to go back to school. Getting an advanced degree can be a
great way to weather a recession – as the surge of interest in graduate
schools and particularly online education opportunities would suggest.
As jobs start to trickle back into the market, they are sure to require
higher skill levels. Most companies are doing more work with the
fewer people, often because the best workers have become highly
productive. The place to start is with our new America’s Best
Graduated Schools, debuting this month and online at
www.usnews.com. We have a lots of fresh, useful data about schools
and programs that will help you find the right fit. We have more
emphasis on online programs because sometimes the best choice may
be a shorter-term certificate program to enhance a specific set of
technical or management skills: Employers list exactly what they’re
looking for, and online education institutions tailor their programs to
meet the market needs. We also can show you how to pay for your
schooling. These programs are expensive and, despite the economy,
not getting any cheaper. But if you do it the right way, it can be an
investment worth making.
e. Paragraph five
I’d like to get your thoughts on the state of the job market. What
out? Are we matching our education to our workforce needs? Will
there be enough good jobs to go around? Drop me a note at
editor@usnews.com. And tell your kids to do their math homework.
There are kinds of reiteration in these texts above. The phrase good year (paragraph one), career (paragraph two), how (paragraph two) are words which are repeated twice. Good year, career, and how in these sentences also refer to the same referent. So, they are called repetition. In the text, the writer also finds collocation. The prase best-paying and word
carreer usually occur together in a sentence. So, it is called collocation. The word thing (paragraph three) is very general. Its meaning is very broad. So, it is called general word. The words engineering, computer science, or medical specialities (paragraph three) are related word whose meanings are specific instances of top jobs. So, it can be concluded that
top jobs is superordinate, because it is more general than its instances. The word people (paragraph four)is general word because it has basically the same meaning of a more specific word, such as men, women, girls, boys, etc. in those sentences above, the writer also finds a collocation in word workers (paragraph four) and companies (paragraph four) that usually occur together in some contexts, such as industry, business, economy, etc. there is no lexical cohesion in paragraph five. 1.3. Degree of Cohesiveness in Text One
35
In paragraph one, the writer finds five sentences. The first until the fourth paragraph are good in grammar and lexical cohesiveness. But, the last sentence or the fifth sentence is fewer cohesive because the sentence “Our issue this month is here to help.” is not related to the previous sentence “The recession may be over from a technical standpoint, but the bleak employment picture is a hangover we’re going to suffer through for
the rest of this year and into the next”. So, it is better to add a conjunction
because of that.
b. Paragraph two: lower degree.
The second paragraph has two sentences. The writer finds the first sentence and second sentence is fewer cohesive. It still needs a conjunction
and. Besides that, there are many repetition of word how to in the second sentence “We look at such essential topics as the best-paying careers; how
to market yourself in the internet dominated job search sector; the best
websites to use; how to get back into the workforce when you’ve taken
time away; and how to find education alternatives to expand your
options.” It is better to combinate them as “We look at such essential topics as the best-paying careers; how to market yourself in the internet
dominated job search sector; the best websites to use; how to get back into
the workforce when you’ve taken time away and find education
alternatives to expand your options.”
Paragraph three consists of five sentences. They are good in grammar and lexical. Because of that, it is very easy to be understood by the readers.
d. Paragraph four: medium degree.
Paragraph four is the longest paragraph of all. It just needs an additons to make it more cohesive. The writer adds a demonstrative reference “now” between the third sentence and fourth sentence. So it becomes “As jobs start to trickle back into the market, they are sure to require higher skill levels. Now, most companies are doing more work
with the fewer people, often because the best workers have become highly
productive.”
e. Paragraph five: medium degree.
The writer adds a causality conjunction “so” in the last sentence of that paragraph, as follow: “So, drop me a note at editor@usnews.com. And tell your kids to do their math homework” because it is a conclusion of the fifth paragraph.
2. Text 2: Your Money and Your Government 2.1. Grammatical Cohesion in Text Two a. Paragraph one
We’re taking on two big topics this month: your money and
your government. Or may be it’s the same thing? Just kidding –
I’m not here to pick that fight. Although I’d be happy to referee
37
b. Paragraph two
The truth is that more than a few Americans are very
concerned about both the direction of their government and the
state of their money. Some folks make some case that the two are
much too closely linked. Others will tell you that the federal
government is playing a bigger role because it has to – because of
failures in the market economy and inequities in the fabric of society.
That’s way we have elections. Andwe’ve got a great one coming up.
c. Paragraph three
We’re not here to argue the case for or against big government.
But we are trying to help you understand to the political forces that
have already made this one of the most interesting, consequential
years in American politics – and one that will only get more intense
as we approach the fall House and Senate elections. We’re taking a
step back to take a look forward with a political guide that tries to
separate the noise from the substance. Tea Parties, talk radio, cable
partisanship, and internet money bombs are only part of the
hyperactive climate that’s been created by a president with an agenda
that at least half the electorate is not buying.
d. Paragraph four
We’re also introducing a new aspect to our coverage: an online
insider’s guide to Congress (story, page 39), an interactive database
Congress, including their backgrounds, politics, and campaign
contributions. As we build this out over time, we hope it will become
an essential resource to an understanding how Congress - and your
congressman–works.
e. Paragraph five
Now, let’s talk about your money. The focus this month is on
investing, as we debut our Best Mutual Funds rating tool (more about
that in a moment). We also take you through a range of issues from
rebuilding a battered portfolio to retirement planning to tips for
making your money go further. Even with the outlines of a recovery
starting to become visible, it’s clear that we’re going to be living in a
new economic climate that will require us to be very engaged in our
own finances.
f. Paragraph six
To that end, we’ve created a Best Mutual Funds feature on our
website (usnews.com/f unds). We’re following a methodology we’ve
used with great success on our increasingly popular auto rankings
site (usnews.com/cars) and our new travel site
(http://travel.usnews.com). Essentially, Best Mutual Funds is a review
of the reviews, a composite of data from the most respected raters of
mutual funds that gives you a blended score for each of the most
39
pages online. We’ve created a clean, simple navigation that will help
guide you through what can be a daunting set of choices.
g. Paragraph seven
Both the Congress project and the mutual fund ratings are part of
our strategy to use the best attributes of print and online formats to
give you the information you need to make sound decisions about
things that matter in your life.
h. Paragraph eight
As always, I’m eager to hear your feedback about how we’re doing
and what you think of the bigger issues. How do you think the fall
elections are shaping up? Care to handicap the odds of the Democrats
losing the House? And what would happen then? How can President
Obama rally his supporters? We’re also very interested in what you
think of our mutual funds coverage. Tell us how we can do a better
job giving you objective, useful information. Drop me a note and
share your thoughts with the rest of our readers on my blog at
usnews.com/editor.
The word one in that sentence substitute the word election.Election
reference. Besides those references, the writer also find that which appear twice, here, now, this that appear once. And they are called demonstrative reference, because they are used to express the location and space or time. Then, others is kind of genetic (diectic) that refers to difference, while
bigger, more, and better are kind of particular (enumerative and epithet). Both of genetic and particular are called comparative reference. There are many conjunction that can be found in second text, such as 21 item of addition conjunction, 1 item of adversative conjunction, 1 item of temporality conjunction, and 2 item of causality conjunction. The addition conjunction form appear in word and, or, too, and also. While the adversative conjunction appear in word although, temporality conjunction appear in word then and the word because is form of causality conjunction. 2.2. Lexical Cohesion in Text Two
a. Paragraph one
We’re taking on two big topics this month: your money and
your government. Or may be it’s the same thing? Just kidding –
I’m not here to pick that fight. Although I’d be happy to referee
it.
b. Paragraph two
The truth is that more than a few Americans are very
concerned about both the direction of their government and the
state of their money. Some folks make a strong case that the two are
41
government is playing a bigger role because it has to – because of
failures in the market economy and inequities in the fabric of society.
That’s way we have elections. And we’ve got a great one coming up.
c. Paragraph three
We’re not here to argue the case for or against big government.
But we are trying to help you understand to the political forces that
have already made this one of the most interesting, consequential
years in American politics – and one that will only get more intense as
we approach the fall House and Senate elections. We’re taking a step
back to take a look forward with a political guide that tries to
separate the noise from the substance. Tea Parties, talk radio, cable
partisanship, and internet money bombs are only part of the
hyperactive climate that’s been created by a president with an agenda
that at least half the electorate is not buying.
d. Paragraph four
We’re also introducing a new aspect to our coverage: an online
insider’s guide to Congress (story, page 39), an interactive database
(usnews.com/congress) that lets you research any member of
Congress, including their backgrounds, politics, and campaign
contributions. As we build this out over time, we hope it will become
an essential resource to an understanding how Congress - and your
congressman–works.
Now, let’s talk about your money. The focus this month is on
investing, as we debut our Best Mutual Funds rating tool (more about
that in a moment). We also take you through a range of issues from
rebuilding a battered portfolio to retirement planning to tips for
making your money go further. Even with the outlines of a recovery
starting to become visible, it’s clear that we’re going to be living in a
new economic climate that will require us to be very engaged in our
own finances.
f. Paragraph six
To that end, we’ve created a Best Mutual Funds feature on our
website (usnews.com/f unds). We’re following a methodology we’ve
used with great success on our increasingly popular auto rankings
site (usnews.com/cars)and our new travel site
(http://travel.usnews.com). Essentially, Best Mutual Funds is a review
of the reviews, a composite of data from the most respected raters of
mutual funds that gives you a blended score for each of the most
popular funds. The tables on page 52 are a snapshot of thousand of
pages online. We’ve created a clean, simple navigation that will help
guide you through what can be a daunting set of choices.
g. Paragraph seven
Both the Congress project and the mutual fund ratings are part of
43
give you the information you need to make sound decisions about
things that matter in your life.
h. Paragraph eight
As always, I’m eager to hear your feedback about how we’re doing
and what you think of the bigger issues. How do you think the fall
elections are shaping up? Care to handicap the odds of the Democrats
losing the House? And what would happen then? How can President
Obama rally his supporters? We’re also very interested in what you
think of our mutual funds coverage. Tell us how we can do a better job
giving you objective, useful information. Drop me a note and share
your thoughts with the rest of our readers on my blog at
usnews.com/editor.
Thing and Folks are very general. Folks can be Javanese folks, Sundanese folks, American folks, etc. So, it can be included as general word. According to Oxford dictionary, the word argue (paragraph two) means “give a reason for / against something”, while the word against
(paragraph two) means “opposing”. Argue and against have similar meaning, although their meaning are not exactly same. They are called near synonym. The word congress (paragraph four) occurs twice, popular
(paragraph six) occurs twice, site (paragraph six) occurs twice, review
cohesiveness of the text. Congress and congressman (paragraph four) are habitually co-occur. The word congressman usually appear with the word
congress. So, they are called collocation. In the above example the word The word in italic think (paragraph eight) is repeated. So, definitely it is repetition. This repetition make those sentences cohesive.
2.3. Degree of Cohesiveness in Text Two a. Paragraph one: Higher degree.
Paragraph one consists of four sentences. They are good in grammar and lexical. Because of that, it is very easy to be understood by the readers.
b. Paragraph two: Higher degree.
The writer concludes paragraph two in the second text has higher degree because it is very cohesive. There are many kinds of grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion that can be found.
c. Paragraph three: Medium degree.
