Policy-makersandcommentatorsoftenblame‘bad
parenting’forchildren’sandyoungpeople’stroublesome behaviour.Whatcanresearchtellusabouttheinfluenceof parenting,especiallytheparent-childrelationshipsinmillions of‘ordinary’families?
Thispaper:
■Summarisesfindingsfromsevenreviewsofexistingresearchthatwere commissionedbytheJosephRowntreeFoundationtoinformitsown ParentingResearchandDevelopmentprogramme.
■Considersparentingfromtheperspectivesofmothers,fathersand childrenthemselves,aswellasthoseofblackandminorityethnic parentsandfamilieslivinginpovertywithrestrictedaccesstosupport services
Editor:DavidUtting August2007
Parentingandthedifferent
waysitcanaffectchildren’s
lives:researchevidence
Keypoints
■Differencesinchildtemperament,amongotherfactors,demonstratethatflexible, adaptableparentingismorelikelytobeeffectivethana‘onesizefitsall’approach.
■Thequalityofparent-childrelationshipsshowsconsiderablestabilityovertime. Somedimensionsofparentingareimportantinchildren’slivesirrespectiveofage, especiallywhetherrelationshipsarewarmandsupportiveormarkedbyconflict.
■Warm,authoritativeandresponsiveparentingisusuallycrucialinbuilding resilience.Parentswhodevelopopen,participativecommunication,problem-centredcoping,confidenceandflexibilitytendtomanagestresswellandhelp theirfamiliestodothesame.
■Youngchildren’srelationshipswiththeirmotherstypicallyaffecttheirdevelopment morethanfather-childrelationships.Butteenagers’relationshipswiththeirfathers appearespeciallyimportanttotheirdevelopmentandachievementinschool.
■Children’sperspectivesshowthatwhatyoungpeople‘think’isnotnecessarily whatparents‘thinktheythink’.Parentstendtounderestimatetheirowninfluence, butarealsopronetotakeinsufficientaccountofchildren’sfeelingsattimesof emotionalstress.
■Thereisnoclear-cut,causallinkbetweenpovertyandparenting.However,poverty cancontributetoparentalstress,depressionandirritabilityleadingtodisrupted parentingandtopoorerlong-termoutcomesforchildren.
■Policy,practiceandresearchonparentinghavemadesimplisticassumptions aboutparentinginblackandminorityethniccommunities.Stereotyped
misunderstandingsabout‘tradition’and‘culture’havecontributedtofailuresto protectchildrenfromabuse.
Introduction
Aspartoftheplanningprocessforitsresearchanddevelopmentprogrammeon parenting,theJosephRowntreeFoundationcommissionedaseriesofbackground papers,includingsevenoverviewsofexistingresearchliterature.Politicalinterestin parentinghastendedtofocusonlinksbetween‘problem’behaviourbychildrenand youngpeopleanddysfunctionalfamilies.Partlyforthatreason,theJRFprogramme hasbeenchieflyconcernedwithparentingin‘ordinary’families,seekingabetter
understandingofdiversityinparentinganditsimplicationsforfamilypoliciesandsupport services.Thisisreflectedinthetopicscoveredbythereviews:
■Parentingandoutcomesforchildren ■Parentingandresilience
■Fathersandfatherhood ■Parentingandethnicity ■Children’sviewsofparenting ■Parentingandpoverty
■Barrierstoinclusion
Parentingandoutcomesforchildren
ThomasG.O’Connor(UniversityofRochester)andStephenScott (InstituteofPsychiatry)
Thewaysthatparentsshapetheirchildren’sdevelopmenthavebeenalong-standing sourceoftheorisingbyscientists,philosophersandparentsthemselves.Lookingata widerangeofoutcomestudies,thereviewconcludesthatthequalityofparent-child relationshipsissignificantlyassociatedwith:
■Learningskillsandeducationalachievement.Children’sreadingabilityisassociated
withthereadingenvironmentaroundthemandthereisevidencethatparental involvementwithschoolisassociatedwithachievement.
■Socialcompetence(mostcommonlystudiedwithinpeerrelationships).Parental
■Children’sownviewsofthemselves.Includingtheirsenseofself-worth.
■Aggressive‘externalising’behaviouranddelinquency.Themoreextremethe
circumstancesforparents,theworsetheoutcomesforchildrenandlikelihoodof psychologicaldisturbance.
■Depression,anxietyandother‘internalising’problems.Includingcomplaintswhere
physicalsymptomsarerelatedtoemotionalstressandsocialwithdrawal.
■High-riskhealthbehaviours.Suchassmoking,illicitdruguse,alcoholuse,sexually
riskybehaviourand,insomestudies,obesity.
Inaddition:
■Inmostcircumstances,thereisconsiderablestabilityinthequalityoffamily relationshipsovertime,especiallywhenthereisasecurebondofattachment betweenchildrenandtheirparents.
■Thequalityofparent-childrelationshipsappearstoremaininfluentialintoadulthood forsocialandbehaviouraloutcomes(althoughtherehavebeenrelativelyfewlong-termstudies).
■Somedimensionsofparent-childrelationshipsappearimportantinchildren’slives irrespectiveofage,notablywhethertheyarewarmandsupportiveormarkedby conflictandhostility.
■Otherdimensionsarethoughttoalterinstructureandfunctionduringchildren’s development.Oneofthemostimportantmaybemonitoringandcontrol.
■ Someassociationsbetweenthequalityoffamilyrelationshipsandchildren’swell-beingappeartodifferacrosssub-populationsandcultures–includingthosein relationtophysicaldiscipline.
■Differencesinchildtemperament,amongotherfactors,demonstratethata‘one stylefitsall’approachtoparentingisnotoptimal.
Thereviewfindsthatparentingprogrammeshaveincreasinglycometobeseenas amatterofpublichealth.Improvingthequalityofparent-childrelationshipscanbe expectedtohavepositiveeffectsonindividualchildren,familiesandsocietyasawhole. However,thewiderangeofoutcomesthatarelinkedwiththequalityofparent-child relationshipsneedstobereflectedinthewaythatparentinginterventionsareassessed.
Parentingandresilience
MalcolmHill,AnneStafford,PeterSeamanandNicolaRoss (UniversityofGlasgow)andBrigidDaniel(UniversityofDundee)
Thisreviewconsidersparents’contributionstochildren’s–andtotheirown–resilience. ‘Resilience’occurswhengoodoutcomescomeaboutforindividualsorfamiliesinthe faceofadversity,orwhereproblemswouldnormallybeexpected.Resilience-based practiceinvolveslookingforstrengthsandopportunitiestobuildon,ratherthanfor problemsanddeficitstoremedyortreat.
Resiliencecanbedisplayedinseveraldomains–emotional,social,educationaland behavioural.Itisimportant,intermsofpolicyandpractice,toconsidernotonlyhow parentalresiliencecanimprovechildren’swell-being,butalsowhatassistsparentstobe robustinthefaceofadversity.Availableresearchsuggeststhat:
■Parents,oralternativecaregivers,playapivotalroleinpromotingtheknowledge, skillsandenvironmentthatcanhelpchildrencopewithadversity.
■Parentsplayavitalpartinmediatingindividualandcommunityfactors,directlyor indirectly.Theycanbufferchildrenfromsomeoftheworsteffectsofadversityin thesurroundingenvironment.
■Whenparentsareimplicatedinchildren’sproblems(e.g.familyviolenceand neglect)itcanbedoublydifficultforchildrentoberesilient.Nevertheless, personalqualitiesandthesupportoftrustedpeersoradultswhofitwiththeir needs,wishesandexpectationscanmakeadifference.
■Someofthemoststrikingevidenceaboutresiliencecomesfromfosteringand adoption.Childrenwithpoorhealthanddevelopmentcommonlymakerapid stridesoncetheyhavegainedadoptiveparents.
■Researchpointsto‘problem-focused’copingbyparentsbeingmoresuccessful thanavoidantorpassiveresponses.Thishasbeenfoundtohelpparentsrespond positivelywhentheyhaveachildwithaseveredisabilityorhealthproblem.
■Schoolscanplayacentralroleinpromotingresilienceinrelationtobothpoverty andfamilydifficulties.Thiscanrelatetofactorssuchasacademicstimulus, supportbyteachers,learningopportunitiesandaccesstofriendsandpeers.
■Communityfactorscanalsopromoteresilience.Childrenarelikelytofinditeasier toaccesssupportoutsidethehomewhentheyliveincohesiveneighbourhoods withformalfacilitiesthatencourageparticipationandachievement.
Fathersandfatherhood:connectingthestrandsofdiversity
CharlieLewis(UniversityofLancaster)andMichaelE.Lamb(UniversityofCambridge)
Thisreviewlooksatsomedimensionsoffatheringthatneedtobeconsideredwhen understandingtherolesplayedbymenincontemporaryfamilies.Barrierstoabetter understandingoffatheringandfatherhoodincludeanarrowconcentrationonmen’sroles as‘providers’andinattentiontolessvisibleaspectsofparenting.Fathershavebeen characterisedtooreadilyaseither‘superdads’or‘deadbeatdads’.
Fatheringissuesthathavereceivedparticularattentioninrecentresearchinclude:
■Childcareandfathering:Whiletheextentoffathers’childcarecommitmentshas
grownrapidlysincethe1960s,fathersindual-earnerhouseholdsstilldoless withtheirchildrenthanmothers.Greaterinvolvementbymendoesnotappear tobeassociatedwithincreasedharmonybetweenpartners.Depressedmarital satisfactionmay,however,reflectgeneralfamilystress.
■Paternalinvolvement:Thewarmthofmen’srelationshipswiththeirchildrenappears
greaterwhentheyhavegoodrelationshipswiththemothers,whenthehomeis ‘well-organised’,andwhenthefamilyengagesinregular,sharedactivities.One studyfoundchildren’sdevelopmentalprogresswasdelayedwhentheirmothers returnedtoworkbeforetheywere18monthsold,butnotwhenfatherswerehighly involvedinchildcare.
■Paternalemployment:FathersinBritaintendtoworkmuchlongerhoursthan
theirEUcounterparts.Contemporarycouplescontinuetofacethedilemmathat theycanonlyenhancetheirfamilyfinancesthroughworkatthecostofreduced involvementinchildcare.
■Father’sinfluenceonchilddevelopment:Researchwithyoungerchildrensuggests
thatmother-childrelationshipstypicallyaffectchildren’sdevelopmentmorethan father-childrelationships.Butstudiesofsubsequentattainmentsuggestthat fathers’‘inputs’areconsistentlylinkedtomeasuresofchildren’sdevelopment oncetheyentersecondaryschool,unlikethoseofmothers.Therearealso consistentassociationsbetweenfather-teenagerrelationshipsandayoung person’sadjustmenttoadultlife.
■Cohabitationandfathering:Cohabitatingrelationshipscanrangefrommutual
commitmenttoasharedassumptionthattherelationshipwillnotlast.Studies suggestthatevenwhenlesssteadyrelationshipsdissolve,thereisoftena
commitmenttomaintainfather-childrelationships,unlesstherehasbeenahistory ofviolence.
■Ethnicminorityfathering:Therehasbeenconsiderablespeculationaboutfathering
context.IntheUS,commentatorshavemadesweepingstatementsaboutnon-residentAfricanAmericanfatherswhichmorecarefulresearchhassubsequently showedtobeunfounded.
■Fathersinspecialcircumstances:Studieshavepaidparticularattentionto
vulnerablegroupsforwhomtargetedsocialpolicyinterventionsmaybe appropriate,including:
– Teenagefathers:ArecentUKstudyfound60percentofyoungfathersin Bristolremainedhighlyinvolvedwiththeirchildren.
– Professionalservicesforfamilies:Preschoolservicesforfamiliesseldom provideservicesforfathers.Maleworkersatdaynurseriesandplaygroups compriseatinyproportionofstaff.
Parentingandethnicity
AnnPhoenix(ThomasCoramResearchUnit,InstituteofEducation,UniversityofLondon) andFatimaHusain(CentreforEconomicandSocialInclusion)
Policy-makers,practitionersandacademicshavelongviewed‘race’asanimportant factoraffectingtheparentingchildrenreceive.However,differencesof‘race’have beentreatedsimplisticallyandtherehasbeenatendencytomakeassumptionsabout parentinginminorityethnicgroupsonthebasisofafewstudiesconsistingoflittle,or inadequate,data.ThereviewhighlightsBritishstudieswhereavailableandamuchlarger bodyofAmericanresearch.
■Somestudiescompareminorityandmajorityethnicgroupswithanimplicit assumptionthatthemajorityethnicgroupconstitutesthe‘norm’againstwhich otherfamiliesare(oftenunfavourably)compared.
■Simplisticassumptionsaboutparentingaresometimessharedbymembersof minorityaswellasmajorityethnicgroups.Forexample,oneUKstudyfoundthat Asian,blackandwhiteparentsoftenconsideredthattheyhadfewpracticesor valuesincommon.ManyAsianandblackparentsbelievedthatwhiteparents lackedcommitmenttoparenting,andthatwhitechildrenwereundisciplinedand lackingrespectfortheirparents.
combinationofparentalresponsivenessandbehaviouralcontrolknownas
‘authoritative’parentingispreferabletoamore‘authoritarian’style.However,these findingshavebeencalledintoquestioninrecentyearsinrelationtoethnicity,and alsosocialclassandgender.
■Supposed‘traditional’traitsinthefamilypracticesofminoritiesmaybetheresult ofadaptationtoparticularcircumstances.Relativelyhighlevelsofemployment amongblackBritishmothers,forexample,notonlyrelatetohistoricalandcultural factorsbutalsostructuralandeconomicfactors.
■Researchersandpractitionersdisagreeabouttheplaceof‘race’inparents’use ofphysicaldisciplineanditsimpactonchildren’sdevelopment.Butassumptions aboutphysicaldisciplineinblackandminorityethniccommunitiescanhave
unfortunateconsequences.InthecaseofVictoriaClimbié,anunderstandingthatit was‘culturallyappropriate’topunishchildrenseverelycontributedtothefailureto recognisechildabuse.
■Apreoccupationinresearchwiththeeffectsof‘fatherabsence’onchildren–with particularreferencetoAfricanAmericanandAfricanCaribbeanfathers–has resultedinlittleattentionbeinggiventofatherhoodamongethnicgroupsin general.
■ Thenotionthatfathersaresimply‘absent’fromtheirchildren’slivesiftheyarenon-residentcannolongerbeassumed.OnestudyofBritishblackfamiliesidentifieda rangeofwaysthatnon-residentfatherscontributedtotheirchildren'slives,sothat somewerenotconsidered‘absent’.
■Religionremainsanunderstudiedcomponentoffamilylife.Religiosityhasbeen associatedwithprotectivefactorsthatstrengthenfamilies,butlittleinformationis currentlyavailableonthebeneficialorharmfulrolesthatreligionplaysinthehome.
■Parentinginmixedheritagefamilieshasreceivedlimitedattentiondespiteevidence thattheirchildrenofmixedparentagemayfacenegative‘racialisation’byrelatives onbothsidesoftheirfamily.Itisincreasinglyclearthatchildrenfromdifferent mixedbackgroundsfaredifferently.
■Relyingonsimpledistinctionsbetween‘black’,‘white’and‘Asian’familiesisno longeradequateinresearchanalyseswhenseekinggoodunderstandingsofsocial trends.Itisalsonecessarytorecognisetheeffectsof‘race’,ethnicity,classand genderandthewaystheyintersectwitheachother.
■Akeychallengeforfutureresearchintoethnicandmixed-heritageparentingwillbe toplacetheirmeaningsincontextfordifferentfamiliesintermsofsocio-economic statusandsocialexclusion.
Children’sviewsandexperiencesofparenting
NicolaMadge(BrunelUniversity)andNatashaWillmott(NationalChildren’sBureau)
Thefocusofthisreviewisresearchwithchildrenratherthanresearchaboutchildren. Basedonanexaminationoftheliterature,consultationswithexpertsinthefield,and twofocusgroupswithyoungpeople,itexploreschildren’saccountsofparentingwhere ‘addedvalue’isgainedfromincludingtheirviews.
Thereviewconcludesthat:
■Gainingchildren’sperspectivesgreatlyincreasesunderstandingoftheparenting process.Whatyoungpeople‘think’isnotnecessarilywhatadults‘thinkthey think’.Parentstendtounderestimatetheirowninfluencecomparedwithfriends andpeers;butchildren’saccountsalsosuggestthatparentsoftenfailto
understandwhattheyaregoingthroughattimesofseriousemotionaldisturbance.
■Childrenarefrequentlyperceptiveaboutthebehaviours,attitudesandfeelingsof theirparentsandcarers.Theycommonlyacknowledgethatthey,aswellastheir parents,haveanimpactontheirupbringing.
parentsthanolderchildren.However,onerecentstudyofolderteenagers foundmostfelttheirrelationshipswithparentshadbecomemoreequaland companionable.
■Childrentendnothaverigidideasaboutparentsorfamilies,althoughtheyoften perceivemothersandfathersasfulfillingratherdifferentroles.Insomesurveys childrenhavebeenmorelikelytoseemothersasdealingwithchildcareandhome maintenance,andfathersasfinancialproviders.
■MostteenagersintheUKappeartoholdpositiveviewsoffamilylife.However,girls aremorepositivethanboys.Teenagersofeithersextendtofeelclosesttotheir mothers.Youngpeoplegenerallydislikefeelingover-protected.
■Childrenvaluegoodrelationships,loveandsupport,anddislikeconflictwithin thefamily.Closesupportivelinkswithparents,otherfamilymembers(e.g. grandparents),andtrustworthyfriendswereamongthefactorstheyidentifyas makingiteasiertocopewithparentalseparation.
■Youngpeoplewhoseparents’relationshipsbreakdownwantmoreinformationon whatishappening,andgreaterconsultationonissueslikewheretheywillliveand whatcontacttheywillhavewiththeirnon-residentparent.Alackofinformation addstoanxietiesandcanaffectrelationshipswithparents.
■SurveyssuggestthatonlyoneintenEnglishchildrenandyoungpeopleregard theirupbringingas‘verystrict’,althoughboysatprimaryschoolaretwiceaslikely asgirlstosaythis.Youngpeoplereportthatmostparentaldisciplineisbasedon reasoning,explanationandnon-physicalpunishments.
■Childrentendtorespecttheauthorityofparentfigures,andtheir‘right’todiscipline andpunishthem–eveniftheyalsoadoptstrategiesfornegotiatingdecisions.
■Experiencesofparentingaffectattitudesandlong-termbehaviour,including expectationsofparenthoodandlaterparenting.Inonestudy,adultswhohad receivedlittleornophysicalpunishmentaschildrenreportedbringinguptheir childreninthesameway.Thosewhohadreceivedfrequentpunishment,although intheorymoretolerant,appearedtoadministermorepunishmentsinpractice.
Therelationshipbetweenparentingandpoverty
IlanKatz(UniversityofNewSouthWales)JudyCorlyon,VincentLaPlacaandSarah Hunter(PolicyResearchBureau)
Understandingislimitedregardingwhether,andhowfar,‘good’parentingmediatesthe effectsofpovertyonchildren.Thisreviewconsiderstheextenttowhichpovertyitself affectsparenting,orwhetherothercharacteristicsofparentslivinginpoverty,suchas theirmentalhealth,personalities,education,andfamilystructures,arelikelytoaffect theirparentingandtheireconomiccircumstances.
Theoverallconclusionisthatthereisnoclear-cut,causallinkbetweenpovertyand parenting.Rather,itislikelythatdifferentindividualsrespondindifferentwaystofinancial hardship.Factorssuchasfamilystructure,neighbourhoodandsocialsupportinteract withparents’temperaments,beliefs,andtheirownexperiencesofparenting.
Themaininfluenceofpovertyonparentingseemstobethatitcausessomeparents tobemorestressed,depressedorirritable,andthisinturndisruptstheirparenting practicesandstyles.Itisthedisruptedparenting,ratherthanpovertyitself,which appearstobethemajorfactoraffectingoutcomesforchildren.Forexample:
■Problemshavebeenshowntoincreasewhenlow-incomefamiliessufferstress suchasabsenceofasupportivepartner,depressionordruguse,andtoimprove whenfamiliesenjoysocialsupportfromfamilyfriendsorneighbours.
Thechainofeventssuggestedbyresearchshouldnotbeseenasdeterministic.At eachstep,therearepossibilitiesforresilienceandforpositiveoutcomes(seeabove). Manyparentslivinginpovertymanagetodealeffectivelywithadversityandparentsare oftenpreparedtosacrificetheirownneedstomeetthoseoftheirchildren.Conversely, theavailableevidencedoesnotsupportassumptionsthattacklingmaterialdeprivation throughwelfaretowork,benefitincreasesorotherprogrammeswillinevitablyleadto improvedparentingcapacity.
Studiessuggest,inanycase,thatmostparentslivinginrelativepoverty(likethoseliving inrelativeaffluence)possessadequateparentingcapacity.Thosewhoseeconomic deprivationiscombinedwithalackofparentingcapacitymaybeinthatsituationfor differentreasons.Forexample:
■Somemaylackparentingcapacitybecauseofpersonalcharacteristicsortheirown background.Thesefactorsalsomakethemlesssuccessfulinthelabourmarket, makingitmorelikelytheywillbefinanciallydisadvantaged.
■Othersmaybeabletoparentadequatelyincircumstancesofrelativeaffluence but,onfallingintopovertyanddeprivation,experiencementalhealthdifficultiesor otherproblemsthataffecttheirparenting.
■Othersstillmayparentadequatelyaccordingtothenormsoftheirneighbourhood orculturalgroup,butbejudgedas‘inadequate’onthebasisofassumptionsmade bymainstream(middle-class)society.
Itfollowsthatparentslivinginpovertyshouldnotbetreatedasadistinctgroupsimply becausetheyaremateriallylessaffluent.
Thereismuchstilltobelearnedaboutthedynamicsofliftingfamiliesoutofpoverty andtheconsequencesforfamilies.Onenotablegapintheliteratureisalackofgender differentiation:thevastmajorityoftheparticipantsinparentingstudieshavebeen mothers.Despiteaclearlinkbetweenpoverty,parentalstressandnegativeoutcomes forchildren,therearealsounresolvedquestionsaboutthedirectionofcausality.The evidencethatliftingfamiliesoutofpovertyimprovesoutcomesforchildrenisnot
Barrierstoinclusionandsuccessfulengagementofparentsin mainstreamservices
IlanKatz(UniversityofNewSouthWales),VincentLaPlacaandSarahHunter(Policy ResearchBureau)
Engagementandinclusionareparticularlyimportantforpreventiveservicessuchas thosedeliveredthroughschools,familycentresandchildren’scentres.Unlike‘crisis’ serviceswherethereisadegreeofcompulsion,preventiveservicesusuallyrelyon parentsactivelyseekinghelp.Yetparentsmostinneedofservicesareoftentheleast likelytoaccessthem.
Thisreviewexamineswhatisknownaboutthebarriersthatparentsfaceinengaging withmainstreamsupportservices,andconsiderswaysthatservices–includinghealth, education,socialservices,youthjusticeandleisure–havesuccessfullyovercomethem. Therearecontinuinggapsinunderstandingwhatpersuadesparentstoparticipate andtheavailableevidenceisnotextensive.Butanumberofusefulmessagescanbe identified:
■Commonreasonsforlimitedengagementbyparentsinclude:
– alackofknowledgeoflocalservicesandhowtheycouldhelp – unsuitableorinconvenientlocations
– difficultiesreachingservices(includingtransport,timepressuresand accessibilityofvenues)
– costs(feesareaself-evidentdisincentive)
– suspicionandstigma(includingperceptionsoftheorganisationproviding theserviceandfearofbeinglabelleda‘badparent’–orevena‘child abuser’)
– fearsoverprivacyandconfidentiality(includingconcernsaboutsharingtheir problemswithotherparentsingroups)
– unco-ordinatedservices
– theoverallcultureofsomeservices(includinga‘riskaverse’focuson
protocols,targets,financialconstraintsandfearsofadversemediaattention) – resistancetoservicesarisingfromparticularneeds(suchasmentalillness,
■Groupsofparentsthatarelesslikelytoaccesssupportservicesthanothers include:
– Fathers
– Disabledparents – Parentsofteenagers
– Blackandminorityethnic(BME)families – Asylum-seekingparents
– Homelessorperipateticfamilies – Ruralfamilies.
Theissueofaccessfordisabledparentshasreceivedgreaterrecognitionasaresult ofthe1995DisabilityDiscriminationAct.Evenso,thenumberofdisabledparents accessingsupportgroupsislow.
Familiesfromblackandminorityethniccommunitiesfaceanumberofbarriersaccessing services.Forexample,astudyofHome-Startfamilysupportservicesfoundaccess wasaparticularproblemforAsianwomenwhowereisolatedbyfactorsthatincluded problematicfamilyrelationshipsandapoorgraspofEnglish.Ithasbeenarguedthat someparentingprogrammesapplywhitemiddle-classvaluesthatdonotautomatically recogniseculturaldifferences.
Thereisalsoevidencethatmainstreampreventiveservicesfailtoengagefathers.Many menappeartoperceivethatavailableservicesarenotrelevanttothem–aconclusion thatmaybejustifiedgivenevidencethatmostparentingservicesareframedaround mothers.
Parentslivinginpovertywiththegreatestneedsarecommonlytheparentsleastlikely toaccesssupport–whetherformalorinformal.Theyaremorelikelytobestressedand depressed,andthismayhinderthemfromaccessingservices.
Researchinto‘goodpractice’suggeststhatpolicy-makersandpractitionerscanaimto improveservicedeliveryandengagementwithparentsthrough:
■choosingaccessiblevenuesanduser-friendlytimesforservicedelivery ■trustingrelationshipsbetweenfront-linestaffandserviceusers
■aninteractivestyle,involvingparentsindecision-making
(moreimportantthanachievingaprecisematchbetweenthecharacteristicsof serviceusersandstaff)
■overcomingprejudice,especiallyinrelationtodisabilityandpoormentalhealth (assumptionsthatmentalillnessandlearningdifficultiesareriskfactorsforchild abuseandneglecthavecreatedadisincentiveforparentstoengagewithservices)
■useoftrainedstaffinparentingsupportservices
■promotionofinformalsocialnetworksamongserviceusersaswellasformal supportthroughservices
■providinginformationforparentswhichislocally,contextuallyandculturally specificandtargetedtowardsdifferentcommunities.
Fullversionsofallthereportssummarisedhereareavailableforfreedownloadfrom www.jrf.org.uk.
WrittenbyDavidUtting
©JosephRowntreeFoundation2007
PublishedbytheJosephRowntreeFoundation,TheHomestead,40WaterEnd, YorkYO306WP.