A Skripsi
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training in a Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1 (Bachelor of Art) in English Language Education
By: Cholipah 207014000542
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
THE FACULTY OF TARBIYA AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
i
Tarbiya and Teachers’ Training, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
Advisor : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.
Key Words : Error Analysis, Writing, Recount Text.
This study was carried out to find empirical evidence of the most common errors and the source of errors in recount text writing made by the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta. The method used in this study was a case study included as qualitative research. The data was presented in descriptive analysis way and the procedure of Error Analysis used is according to Ellis and Barkhuizen theory.
The result of the study showed that there are the highest-three and the lowest-three errors made by the students. The highest-three common errors are capitalization with the number is 200 or 23.90% errors, word choice with the number is 110 or 13.14% errors and verb tense with the number is 105 or 12.54% errors. The lowest-three errors are 3 or 0.36% incomplete sentence errors, 13 or 1.55% meaning not clear errors and 21 or 2.51% singular-plural errors.
ii
Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
Pembimbing : Drs. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed.
Kata Kunci : Analisa Error, Menulis, Teks Recount.
Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menemukan bukti empiris kesalahan yang paling sering umumnya dilakukan oleh siswa kelas dua SMP Trimulia Jakarta dan menemukan sumber dari kesalahan tersebut. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah studi kasus yang termasuk ke dalam penelitian kualitatif. Data disajikan dalam bentuk deskriptif analysis dan prosuder Error Analysis yang digunakan menurut teori Ellis and Barkhuizen
Hasil dari penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ada tiga teratas dan tiga terbawah error yang dilakukan oleh siswa. Tiga teratas error yang umumnya sering dilakukan adalah capitalization dengan jumlah 200 atau 23.90% error, word choice dengan jumlah 110 atau 13.14% error dan verb tense dengan jumlah 105 atau 12.54% error. Tiga terbawah error yang jarang dilakukan siswa adalah 3 atau 0.36% incomplete sentence, 13 atau 1.55% meaning not clear dan 21 atau 2.51% singular-plural.
iii
In the name of Allah, the beneficent and the merciful.
All praise be to Allah the lord of this universe, by the grace of Allah the highest finally the writer is able to finish her ‘skripsi’ after long effort of writing. Peace, blessing and salutation be upon our great prophet Muhammad, his family, his descendants, and his followers who strived in Islam.
In this precious occasion, the writer would like to express her greatest gratitude and honor to her beloved parents, Rohmat and Nur Mutiah who have been supporting and encouraging the writer to finish this ‘skripsi’.
The writer also would like to address her greatest thanks and appreciation to her kind advisor, Drs. H. Bahrul Hasibuan, M.Ed., who has guided, helped, suggested, and corrected during developing until accomplishing this ‘skripsi’. May Allah always bestow blessing along his life.
Her gratitude and appreciation are also addressed to:
1. Nurlena Rifa’i, M.A., Ph.D., as the Dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and
Teachers’ Training of State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah
Jakarta.
2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., as the chairman of English Education Department. 3. Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum., as the secretary of English Education
Department.
4. All lecturers of English Education Department who have taught and educated the writer during her study.
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Hopefully, this ‘skripsi’ can be beneficial in broadening the perception of Error Analysis for the writer particularly and for anyone who read this ‘skripsi’ generally. The writer realizes that this ‘skripsi’ is still far from being perfect. Hence, she accepts any constructive suggestions to make this ‘skripsi’ better.
Jakarta, July 18th 2014
v
ABSTRAK ... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ... v
LIST OF TABLES ... vii
LIST OF CHARTS ... viii
LIST OF APENDICES ... ix
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION A. The Background of the Study ... 1
B. The limitation and Formulation of the Problem ... 3
C. The Objective of the Study ... 4
D. The Significance of the Study ... 4
CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Error and Error Analysis 1. The Understanding of Error Analysis ... 5
2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake ... 7
3. The Source of Error ... 9
4. The Cause of Error ... 12
5. The Types of Error ... 12
6. The Procedure of Error... 28
7. The Goal of Error Analysis ... 30
B. Writing 1. The Understanding of Writing ... 31
2. The Purpose of Writing ... 33
3. The Types of Writing ... 36
4. The Stage of Writing Process ... 41
5. The Principles of Writing ... 45
C. Recount Text 1. The Definition of Recount Text ... 47
2. The Types of Recount Text ... 48
3. The Schematic Structures of Recount Text ... 49
4. The Language Features of Recount Text ... 50
vi
E. The Technique of Data Analysis ... 55 F. The Procedure of the Research ... 55
CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDINGS
A. The Description and Analysis of Data ... 57 1. The Description and Analysis of Grammatical Errors ... 57 2. The Description and Analysis of Sources of Errors ... 64 B. The Data Interpretation ... 72
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
A. Conclusion ... 74 B. Suggestion ... 74
vii
2. Table 2.2 : A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy………. 13
3. Table 2.3 : Example of Regularization Errors……….. 16
4. Table 2.4 : Simple Addition Errors………... 16
5. Table 2.5 : Capitalization Rules………...………. 25
6. Table 2.6 : The Types of Error Based on Betty Schampfer Azar………. 26
7. Table 2.7 : The Types of Writing Texts…...………. 36
8. Table 2.8 : The Types of Writing……….. 40
9. Table 2.9 : The Schematic Features of Recount Text……..………. 49
viii
ix 2. Surat Bimbingan Skripsi
1
INTRODUCTION
A.The Background of Study
As an international language, English plays an important role as a means of communication among people in the world for business, science, economy, technology, etc. Realizing the importance of English as spoken and written international communication, the Ministry Education of Indonesia includes English as a compulsory subject to learn in Junior High School up to Senior High School. In learning English, there are certain skills that students need to learn, namely: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Listening and reading skills that involve receiving messages are regarded as receptive skills. Speaking and writing skills which involve language production are considered to be productive skills.1
As productive skill, writing is not like speaking skill nor other receptive skills. Writing is the most difficult skill for not only it needs a lot of vocabularies in composing paragraph, but also grammatically correct in order to be comprehensible besides other writing’s rules. Therefore, composing paragraph in writing activity takes a lot of time. As Harmer states that, “Writing is often not time-bound in the way conversation is. When writing, students frequently have more time to think than they do in oral activities. They can go through what they know in their minds, and even consult dictionaries, grammar books or other reference material to help them.”2
Especially for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the
difficulty in writing doesn’t only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also translating the ideas into readable writing, as Richards and Renandya explain:
There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher
1
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, (New York: Longman, 1989), p. 16.
2
spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.
It can be summed up that writing is a hard work which needs a plenty of time for it not only generates and organizes the ideas but also must translate the ideas into understandable writing by using grammatical rules correctly, and it takes a process which needs a lot of practices to be good writing. Therefore, it is inevitable for students of L2 or FL not making mistakes and committing errors in their English writing because it is the most complex skill.
The explanation above is supported by the writer’s unstructured interview result with the English teacher of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan that the main problem faced by students in writing activity is grammatical rules. Most of students are getting difficult in choosing the verb to write, so they got much mistakes, for instance in writing recount text the students had difficulties in choosing the right form verb for past events.
The writer also got such the case above when she was in her PPKT (Praktik Profesi Keguruan Terpadu) in a Public Junior High School, most of the students were not correct in using the verb of past tense and some other grammatical rules when the writer gave them a task to write their personal experience for a recount text. The writer thought that the students’ mistakes are caused by some factors; first they translated their ideas in Indonesian sentences word by word into English sentences and it often made their sentences read unusual and wrong in English way.
The other factor is the students’ knowledge. Probably they didn’t know the correct changing form of verb tense they wrote in their writing and they were confused to put to be in the non-verbal or verbal sentence they wrote. It could be caused by the interference of the students’ first language or their deficiency competence that reflected on how much the students had learnt the grammatical rules of the target language.
3
based on KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan) School-Based Curriculum that mentions in SK (Standar Kompetensi) Competence Standard and KD (Kompetensi Dasar) Basic Competence that there are five kinds of writing texts to learn in Secondary School, namely: Narrative, Recount, Procedure, Descriptive, and Report Text. One of the texts that close to the student’s life is recount text because it is a text that retells past events which the place and occurred events flow smoothly based on the sequence of time,4 it differs from narrative text which the climax and the resolution of problem must be created in the story. Therefore the students can explore their interesting or unforgettable experiences they already had or people around them in recount text. Due to the events they already went through smoothly, so they don’t need to struggle on how to make it happen, and it could have motivated them in writing. In fact, most of them considered writing as a burden because of some reasons related in using the proper lexical and grammatical rules. Therefore, the writer decided to choose recount text as students’ writing activity in this research.
The above explanation stimulates the writer to conduct research in
analyzing students’ grammatical error in their writing and finding out the sources of errors. The writer decided to undertake a study which explores grammatical errors that students have done in writing recount text. This issue would be discussed in her paper entitled “An Analysis of Students’ Error in Writing Recount Text”. This research is conducted by using a case study in the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan.
B.The Limitation and Formulation of Problem
It is necessary to make limitation in order to clarify the problem. The writer focused on analyzing grammatical errors in writing recount text made by the second grade students of SMP Trimulia Jakarta Selatan. She classified the errors based on Betty S. Azzar’s classification of errors and analyzing the errors to
4
study will answer these questions:
1. What are the most common errors which students made in their recount text writing?
2. What are the sources of errors in their recount text writing?
C.The Objective of Study
Based on the formulation of the problem above, the objectives of this study mainly intend as follow:
1. To find empirical evidence of students’ grammatical errors in second grade of SMP Trimulia in their recount text writing.
2. To find the sources of errors made by the students in their recount text writing.
D.The Significance of Study
Particularly, this paper is expected to be beneficial in improving the
5
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A.
Error and Error Analysis
1. The Understanding of Error Analysis
In the middle of the twentieth century, one of the most pursuits of applied linguistic branches was the study of two languages in contrast. Eventually, the backlog of comparative and contrastive data on a myriad of pairs of languages yielded Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH).1 The main focus of Contrastive Analysis (CA) was on comparing the mother tongue (MT) and the target language (TL) in order to predict or explain the errors made by learners.2 CA lasted until
late 60’s affected by behaviorist theory which considered second language
acquisition as learning new sets of habits and transferring the learner’s native language as the basic process of second language learning. Therefore errors were considered as being the result of the persistence of existing mother tongue habits in the new language.3
Vecide Erdogan states in his journal that Error Analysis (EA) appeared in the sixties to demonstrate that learner errors were not only because of the learners’ native language but also they reflected some universal learning strategies. According to him, “EA deals with the learners’ performance in terms of the cognitive process they make use of in recognizing or coding the input they receive from the target language. Therefore, a primary focus of EA is on the evidence that learners’ errors provide with an understanding of the underlying process of second
1
H. Douglas Brown, Principles of Language Learning and Teaching 5th Edition, (New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2007), p. 248.
2
Namiko Sakoda, Error Analysis within Newspaper Reporting Written by Japanese Secondary School Students, 広島経済大学研究論集 Departmental Bulletin Paper, 27, 2004, p. 42.
3
language acquisition.”4 EA achieved considerable popularity in the 1970s, replacing CA.5
Dulay, et al have in line idea such the opinion above that, “The EA movement can be characterized as an attempt to account for learner errors that could not be explained or predicted by CA or behaviorist theory, and to bring the
field of applied linguistics into step which current climate of theoretical opinion”.6
It can be summed up that EA emerged to change the place of CA perception about learner’s errors which the CA was affected by behaviorist theory.
Some experts give their opinions about EA. According to Gass and Selinker EA is a type of linguistic analysis that focuses on the errors learners make. EA compares between the errors a learner makes in producing the TL and the TL form itself. They explain that, “Error analysis provides a broader range of possible explanations than contrastive analysis for researchers/teachers to use to account for errors, as the latter only attributed errors to the NL –Native Language (By the writer)—.”7 It means that EA which concerns in learners’ error can explain more about learner’s error what CA can’t predict.
While Corder points out that “Error analysis (EA) is part of methodology of the psycholinguistic investigation of language learning. It aims at telling us something about the psycholinguistic process of language learning.”8 The
Corder’s opinion is in line with other experts’ opinion about EA such as Ellis who
states that EA is used as a tool to investigate how learners acquire a second language (L2).9 Ellis and Barkhuizen further explain that “Error Analysis (EA) consits of a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner
4 Ibid., pp. 262—263. 5
Rod Ellis, The Study of Second Language Acquisition 2nd Edition, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 62.
6
Heidi Dulay, et al., Language Two, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 141.
7
Susan M. Gass and Larry Selinker, Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course: An Introductory Course 3rd Edition, (New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 2008), pp. 102—103.
8
S. P. Corder, Error Analysis and Interlanguage, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 35.
9
errors.”10
Gorbet also explains that, “The basic task of error analysis is to describe
how learning occurs by examining the learner’s „output’.”11
James furthermore argues that, “Error analysis is the process of determining the incidence, nature,
causes and consequences of unsuccessful language.”12
It seems that the use EA is such a tool that investigates student’s learning process in acquiring second language by identifying, describing, analyzing, and explaining the learner’s error.
It can be concluded that the presence of EA was to explain what CA
cannot predict about learners’ error. CA considered error as interference of mother
tongue affected by behaviorist theory and lasting until late sixties. EA which regarded error was not only because of the learner’s native language but also it
reflected some universal learning strategies, is as a tool to investigate the learner’s
error in acquiring language which consists of identifying, describing, analyzing, and explaining the errors.
2. The Distinction between Error and Mistake
Some people have overlapping perception between Error and Mistake, so do some teachers. Then further dealing with Error and Mistake becomes inappropriate treated and then it gives negative impact to the students to know and to measure their competence in language learning process. Therefore, a systematic elaboration of the distinction between Error and Mistake is necessary in order to have sound explanation.
Inevitably the learner will make Mistakes and Errors in the language acquisition process. As Dulay hints that, “Making error is an inevitable part of learning. People cannot learn language without first systematically committing errors.”13 Brown also states that, “Learning is fundamentally a process that involves the making of mistakes. Mistakes, misjudgments, miscalculation, and
10
Rod Ellis and Gary Barkhuizen, Analysing Learner Langaue, (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2008), p. 51.
11Frances Gorbet, „To Err is Human’: Error Analysis and Child Language Acquisition,
English Language Teaching Journal, XXXIV, 1979, p. 24.
12
Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis, (London: Longman, 1998), p. 1.
13
erroneous assumptions form an important aspect of learning virtually and skill or
acquiring information.”14
It means that making Mistakes and Error is naturally happened for learner because it is a part of learning in language acquisition process.
Further Brown distinguishes between Mistake and Error. He explains that: A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a
„slip’, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. All people
make mistakes, in both native and second language situations. Native speakers are normally capable of recognizing and correcting such “lapses” or mistakes, which are not the result of a deficiency in competence but the result of some sort of temporary breakdown or imperfection in the process of producing speech. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflecting the competence of the learner.15
It means that Error reveals the learner’s knowledge of the target language, while Mistake is the learner’s temporary impediment or imperfection in process of utilizing the language.
Corder in Larsen-Freeman and Long give more explanation about Error and Mistake.
Corder made a distinction between a mistake and an error, i.e.: Whereas a mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc, and therefore can be readily self-corrected, an error is a systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2. A learner cannot self-corrected an error because it is a product reflective of his or her current stage of development, or underlying competence. Rather than being seen as something to be prevented, then errors were signs that learners were actively engaged in hypothesis testing which would ultimately in the acquisition of TL rules.16
It can be concluded that Mistake is related to the students’ quality performance caused by some factors such as fatigue, lack of attention and motivation, carelessness and some other factors but it can be self-corrected
because actually the students know the language’s rule when they focus on. Error
14
Brown, Op. Cit., p. 257.
15 Ibid., pp. 257—258. 16
is student’s deficiency competence, it means that students don’t know about the knowledge of the language at all because they have not mastered it yet therefore it
can’t be self-corrected. The explanation above can be summarized in the table
below.
Table 2.1
The Distinction between Error and Mistake
Mistake
Error
Related to the students’
quality performance.
Related to the students’ deficiency
competence.
Reflected the students’
temporary impediment or imperfection when utilizing the target language.
Reflected the students’
understanding or competence in the target language.
Inconsistent deviation. Consistent deviation. Caused by some factors
such as fatigue, lack of attention and motivation, carelessness, etc.
Caused by learners who have not mastered yet the L2 rules.
Can be self-corrected when students pay attention.
Cannot be self-corrected because the students do not know the correct of the L2 rules.
3. The Sources of Error
It’s necessary to know the source of error in order to identify the troubles that faced by students in language learning process. Taylor in Ellis points out the source of error into four categories:
a. Psycholinguistic sources concern the nature of the L2 knowledge system and the difficulties learners has using it in production.
b. Sociolinguistics sources such matters as the learners’ ability to adjust their language in accordance with the social context.
c. Epistemic sources concern the learners’ lack of world knowledge.
d. Discourse sources involve problems in the organization of information
into a coherent „text’.17
17
Different from Ellis, Brown categories the source of error into interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, context of learning and communication strategies.
a. Interlingual transfer is the negative influence of first language. Before the second language system is familiar for the learner. The first language is the only previous linguistic system which can be referred by the learner.
b. Intralingual transfer is the negative transfer within the target language
itself. In other words, it’s the incorrect generalization of rules within
the target language.
c. Context of Learning is Context refers, for example, to the classroom with its teacher and its materials in the case of school learning or the social situation in the case of untutored second language learning. In a classroom context the teacher or the textbook can lead the learner to make faulty hypotheses about the language. In other words, the learners have wrong hypotheses of the teacher’s explanation or the textbook which lead them to make errors.
d. Communication strategy is related to the learning style. Learners obviously use production strategies in order to enhance getting their messages across. However, at times these techniques can themselves become a source of error.18
James’ idea parallels with Brown in talking about the source of error as
follows:
a. Mother-tongue Influence: Interlingual Errors. The error caused by the mother tongue interference. The learners are influenced by the persistence of their native language in using the target language. b. Target Language Causes: Intralingual Errors. The learners in
ignorance of a TL form on any level and of any class can do either of two things:
1) The learner can set about learning the needed item, engaging the learning strategies.
2) The learner can try to fill the gap by resorting to communication strategies.
c. Communication Strategy-Based Errors. The error includes holistic strategies and analytic strategies.
1) Holistic strategies, the term „holistic’ refers to the learners’ assumption. The most general term for this is approximation. 2) Analytic strategies express the concept indirectly, by allusion
rather than the direct reference: this is circumlocution.
d. Induced Error refers to learner errors that result more from the classroom situation than from either the students’ incomplete competence in English grammar (intralingual error) or first language interference (interlingual error). They are the result of being misled by the ways in which the teachers give definitions, examples, explanations, and arrange practice opportunities. Errors are caused by material-induced error, teacher-talk induced error, exercise-based induced error, errors induced by pedagogical priorities, and look-up errors.19
It can be highlighted that Taylor classifies the source of error based on the
learners’ linguistic development stage. While Brown and James classify the
source of error into four main categories, namely: interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, communication strategy and context of learning or in James called induced error. The writer uses the four main categories sources of error
based on Brown’s idea to find out the students’ sources of error in her research.
4. The Causes of Error
John Norrish exposes three causes of errors:
a. Carelessness: It is often closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers will admit that it is not always the students’ fault if he loses interest; perhaps the materials and/or the style of presentation do not suit him.
b. First language interference: Learning a language (mother tongue or a foreign language) was a matter of habit information. The learners’
utterances were thought to be gradually „shaped’ towards those of the
language he was learning.
c. Translation: Probably the most students make errors is translation. This happens because a student translates his first language sentence of idiomatic expression in to the target language word by word.20
It can be highlighted that Norrish divides the cause of errors into three categories, those are Carelessness, First Language Interference and Translation which those are from the learners themselves or the teacher, and the method.
5. The Types of Error
Some experts give their idea about kinds of error. They classify it into several types. Corder in Ellis distinguishes three types of error according to their systematicity:
a. Pre-systematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the existence of a particular rule in the target language. These are random. b. Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is
the wrong one.
c. Post-systematic errors occur when the learner knows the correct target-language rule but uses it inconsistently (i.e. makes a mistake).21
20
John Norrish, Language Learners and Their Errors, (London: Macmillan Press, 1983), pp. 21—26.
21
The other type of errors is elaborated by Dulay et al who classify error into four descriptive classifications of errors. They are linguistic category, surface strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy.
a. Error Types Based on Linguistic Category
These linguistic category taxonomies classify errors according to either or both the language component or the particular linguistic constituent the errors effects.
Language components include the phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantic and lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
Constituents include the elements that comprise each language component. For example, within syntax one may ask whether the error is in the main or subordinate clause; and within a clause, which constituent is affected, e.g. the noun phrase, the auxiliary, the verb phrase, the preposition, the adverb, the adjectives, and so forth.22
Table 2.2
A Sample Linguistic Category Taxonomy23
No. Linguistic Category and Error Type
Example of Learner
Error Explanation
1. Morphology
a. Indefinite article incorrect
b. Possessive case incorrect c. Third person
singular verb incorrect
d. Simple past tense incorrect
e. Past participle incorrect f. Comparative
adjective/adverb
A ant
The man feet The bird help man.
He putted the cookie there.
He was call. He got up more
higher.
a used for an before vowels
Omission of ‘s
Failure to attach -s
Regularization by adding –ed
Omission of -ed
Use of more + er
incorrect 2. Syntax
a. Noun Phrase
b. Verb Phrase c. Verb-and-Verb
Construction d. Word Order
e. Some
Transformations
He put it in the his room.
He is in water. I go play
The bird (object) he was gonna shoot it. He not play anymore.
Use of possessive with the article
Omission of to be Omission of to in
identical subject construction
Repetition of the object
Formation of no or not without the auxiliary do
b. Surface Strategy Taxonomy
Learner may omit necessary any morphemes or words, add unnecessary ones, misform items, or misorder them. Therefore, Dulay et al divide the error based on surface strategy taxonomy into four categories. There are Omission, Addition, Misformation, and Misorder.
1) Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance. Content morphemes carry the bulk of the referential meaning of a sentence: Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.24 Language learners omit grammatical morphemes much more frequently than content words.25 For example:
Mary is the president of the new company.
Mary, president, new, company. (Content Morpheme)
Is, the, of, the. (Grammatical Morpheme)
Marry the president of the new company. (Omission of Grammatical Morpheme ‘is’)
Marry is the president of the new. (Omission of Content
Morpheme ‘Company’)
24
Ibid., p. 154.
25
2) Addition
Addition errors are the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance.26
There are three types of addition errors, namely: double marking, regularization, and simple addition.
a) Double Marking
Many addition errors are more accurately described as the failure to delete certain items which are required in some linguistic construction, but not in others.27
Double marking is two items marked for the same feature. Learners who have acquired the tensed form for both auxiliary and verb often place the marker both, as in;28
He doesn’t knows my name.
We didn’t went there.
Which the correction of the sentence above is;
He doesn’t know my name.
We didn’t go there.
b) Regularization
Regularization errors that fall under the addition category are those in which a marker that is typically added to a linguistic item is erroneously added to exceptional items of the given class that do not take a marker.29
It means that regularization error occurs when learners add morpheme to the exceptional words, for example:
26
Ibid., p. 156.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Table 2.3
Example of Regularization errors
No. Regularization Errors Correction
1. Sheeps Sheep
2. Putted Put
3. Deers Deer
4. Hitted Hit
5. Beated Beat
c) Simple Addition
No particular features characterize simple additions other than those that characterize all addition errors— the use of an item which should not appear in a well-formed utterance.30
Table 2.431
Simple Addition Errors
Linguistic Item Added Example
3rd person singular –s The fishes doesn’t live in the water Past tense (irregular) The train is gonna broke it
Article a a this
Preposition in over there
3) Misformation
Misformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure. In misformation errors the learner supplies something, although it is incorrect.32 For example:
The dog eated the chicken.
There are three types of misformation errors, they are regularization errors, archi-forms, and alternating forms. The explanation is elaborated as follows:
30
Ibid., p. 158.
31
Ibid.
32
a) Regularization Errors
Regularization errors that fall under the misformation category are those in which a regular marker is used in place of an irregular one, as in runned for ran or gooses for geese.33
b) Archi-forms
The selection of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the class is a common characteristic of all stages of second language acquisition.34 For example;
Give me that. Me hungry. That dog. That dogs.
c) Alternating Forms
As the learner’s vocabulary and grammar grow, the use of archi-forms often gives way to the apparently fairly free alternation of various members of a class with each other.35 For example;
Those dog.
I seen her yesterday.
4) Misoreder
As the label suggests, misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance. For example, in the utterance:36
He is all the time late. What Daddy is doing?
I don’t know what is that.
The correct utterances are: He is late all the time. What is Daddy doing?
I don’t know what that is.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid., p. 160.
35
Ibid., p. 161.
36
c. Comparative Taxonomy
The classification of errors in a comparative taxonomy is based on comparisons between the structure of L2 errors and certain other types of constructions.37 These comparisons have yielded the two major errors categories in this taxonomy: developmental errors and interlingual errors. Two other categories that have been used in comparative analysis taxonomies are derived from the first two: ambiguous errors, which are classifiable as either developmental or interlingual; and of course, the grab bag category, other, which are neither.38
1) Developmental Errors
Developmental errors are errors similar to those made by children learning that target language as their first language, take for example:39
Dog eat it.
2) Interlingual Errors
Interlingual errors are similar in structure to a semantically
equivalent phrase or sentence in the learner’s native language.40
Interlingual errors simply refer to L2 errors that reflect native language structure, regardless of the internal processes or external conditions that spawned them.41
For example the word order of Spanish adjectival phrase (e.g. el hombre flaco) which converted in English to be:
The man skinny.
3) Ambiguous Errors
Ambiguous errors are those that could be classified equally well as developmental or interlingual. That is because these errors reflect the learner’s native language structure, and at the same time, they are of the type found in the speech of children acquiring a first language. For example, in the utterance:42
I no have a car.
37
Ibid., p. 163.
38
Ibid., p. 164.
39
Ibid., p. 165.
40
Ibid., p. 171.
41
Ibid.
42
4) Other Errors
Few taxonomies are complete without a grab bag for items that don’t fit into any other category. For example, in the utterance;43
She do hungry.
d. Communicative Effect Taxonomy
The communicative effect classification deals with errors from the perspective of their effect on the listener or reader. It focuses on distinguishing between errors that seem to cause miscommunication
and those that don’t. Errors that affect the overall organization of the
sentence hinder successful communication, while errors that affect a single element of the sentence usually do not hinder communication.44
It means that the errors of communicative effect taxonomy can lead to be misunderstood by the listener or reader to get the intended message. Some of the learner’s speaking or writing errors can be comprehended because there is a minor infraction in the sentence therefore the intended meaning can be guessed but some of the errors prevent the information to be comprehended.
Burt and Kiparsky in Dulay et al discover two types of errors based on communicative effect taxonomy.
1) Global Error
Errors that affect overall sentence organization significantly hinder communication.45
It means that Global Error is happened in the sentence which has a big portion of violation therefore it’s difficult to be comprehended.
The most systematic global errors include:46 a) Wrong order of major constituents
e.g. English language use many people
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid., p. 189.
45
Ibid., p. 191.
46
b) Missing, wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors e.g. (if) not take this bus, we late for school
He will be rich until he marry. (when)
c) Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to pervasive syntactic rules
e.g. the student’s proposal (was) looked into (by) the principal d) Regularization of pervasive syntactic rules to exceptions
e.g. We amused that movie very much (That movie amused us very much)47
2) Local Error
Errors that effect single elements (constituents) in a sentence do not usually hinder communication significantly. These include errors in noun and verb inflections, articles, auxiliaries and the formation of quantifiers.48
It means that Local Error is the error that can be comprehended by the hearer or reader by guessing the intended meaning because there is a bit violation in a part of the sentence.
For example:49
Why like we each other? and
Why we like each other?
Further Corder in Brown gives another view of errors, he talks about Overt and Covert Errors that:
Overtly erroneous utterances are unquestionably ungrammatical at the sentence level. Covertly erroneous utterances are grammatically well formed at the sentence level but are not interpretable within the context of communication. Covert errors, in other words, are not really covert at all, if you attend to surrounding discourse (before or after the utterance). “I’m
47
Ibid.
48 Ibid.,pp. 191—192. 49
fine, thank you” is grammatically correct at the sentence level, but as a
response to “who are you?” it is obviously an error.50
It can be highlighted that Overt Error is incorrect grammatically at the sentence level and Covert Errors is correct grammatically at the sentence level but inappropriate in the context of communication, e.g.; “Who are you? I’m fine, thank you.”
Meanwhile, Betty Schrampfer Azar explains the type of errors into fourteen kinds. The explanation is elaborated as follows:
a. Singular-Plural
Number is the form of word to show whether it is singular or plural. Singular number is when a noun denotes one object e.g. I have one pen. Plural number is a noun denotes more than one object e.g. I have two pens. In addition, singular can be identified by putting a or an before noun e.g. I has a bird. Generally, plural nouns can be added by –s (as in friends) or –es (as in classes) after noun. Moreover, in irregular noun form, plural has various types e.g. child-children, ox-oxen, foot-feet, man-men, wife-wives, etc.51
b. Word Form
“Word form is the phonological or orthographic sound or appearance of a word that can be used to describe or identify something; the inflected forms of a word can be represented by a stem
and a list of inflections to be attached”.52
It means that word form is the change form of word based on the grammatical rules, for example, beautiful (adjective), beautifully (adverb). The error word form in a sentence e.g. I saw a beauty picture. (See table 2.6)
50
Brown, Op. Cit., p. 260.
51
J. C. Nesfield, M.A., Outline of English Grammar, (New York: St. Martin Press, Inc., 1957), pp. 6—7.
52
c. Word choice (Diction)
Diction will be effective only when the words you choose are appropriate for the audience and purpose, when they convey your message accurately and comfortably. The idea of comfort may seem out of place in connection with diction, but in fact words can sometimes cause the reader to feel uncomfortable.53
Word choice is to use the word that suits to the context of utterance, the error in word choice for example in the sentence; I am looking at you.
d. Verb tense
Tense means time. However, it should be pointed out that time in relation to action is a concept that exists in the mind of the speaker, reader, or listener. Tense, in actual usage, refers consistently only to grammatical forms. Often tense and time do not correspond at all. In addition to denoting time relationship, the verbs tenses may indicate whether an activity has been completed, has extended over a period of time, or still in progress.54
Verb tense indicates the relationship between an action or state of being and the passage of time. The present tense indicates that something is taking place now. The past indicates that something was completed in the past. The future indicates that something will take in the future.55
It means that verb tense is the changing form of verb as symbol which expresses or tells about activity or condition and statement happened in the past, present and future.
e. Add a word
Add a word has slight similar example with the term of Omission in Dulay, et al. According to Dulay et al, Omission is the absence of an item of morphemes that must appear in a sentence or utterance56, e.g. They want ^ go to the museum. The absence preposition is to, the sentence called Omission Error of preposition to according to Dulay et
53
http://grammar.about.com/od/d/g/disctionterm.htm, retrieved on November, 15th 2013.
54
George E. Wishon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: Litton Educational Publishing Inc., 1980), p. 192.
55
Linda C. Stanley, et al., Ways to Writing: Purpose, Task and Process, (New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1988), p. 427.
56
al, while according to Betty S. Azzar e.g. They want ^ go to the museum is categorized as error Add a word, because the preposition to must be added in the sentence.
f. Omit a word
Omit a word is same as Addition in Dulay et al theory in the term of example. Betty S. Azzar gives example the error of Omit a word e.g. She entered to the university. The preposition to is not a necessary morpheme in the sentence therefore the morpheme must be omitted and it called as Error of Omit a Word. While according to Dulay et al e.g. She entered to the university is categorized as Addition Error which the preposition to considered as a morpheme that mustn’t be added in the sentence.
g. Word Order
In linguistic, word order typology refers to the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language, and how different language can employ different orders.57
It means that word order is to place the word correctly based on the rules, the error in word order e.g. I saw five times that movie. (See table 2.6)
h. Incomplete Sentence
“Incomplete sentences are missing necessary words or phrases.”58
The incomplete sentence happens when a necessary morphemes of words or phrases is missing in a sentence or utterance.
There are causes and examples of incomplete sentences:
1) In a compound construction, a word that functions as but differs grammatically from a preceding word should not be omitted. For example,
The car was given an oil change, and its wheels (?) aligned.
57
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_order/, retrieved on November, 5th 2013.
58
2) An incomplete sentence also results when a comparison is made completely or illogically. For example,
My car is faster (?)59 i. Spelling
Spelling rules apply to a relatively small number of words, and unfortunately almost all rules have exceptions. Nevertheless, some of the rules may help you to spell common words especially those words form with suffixes.
1) Final Silent –e
Drop a final silent –e before suffixes beginning with a vowel (ing, age, able). Keep a final silent –e before suffixes beginning with a consonant (ful, ly, ness).
Hope + ing = Hoping Hope + ful = Hopeful Dot + age = Dotage Late + ly = Lately Love + able = Loveable Pale + ness = Paleness
Learn the following exceptions: dyeing, hoeing, gluey, awful, ninth, truly, duly, wholly.
The -e is retained in such words as the following in order to keep them soft sound of c and g: noticeable, peaceable, courageous, and outrageous.
2) Doubling Final Consonant
When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to words ending in one consonant proceed by one vowel (Red, Redder), notice where the word is accented. If it is accented on the last syllable or if it is a monosyllable, double the final consonant.
Prefer + ed = Preferred Benefit + ed = Benefited Omit + ing = Omitting Profit + ing = Profiting Occur + ance = Occurrence Differ + ence =
Difference
Red + er = Redder Travel + er = Traveler Note that in some words the accent shifts when the suffix is added.
Referred Reference
Preferring Preference
There are a few exceptions to this rule, like transferable and excellent; and many words that should follow the rule have alternate spellings: either worshiped or worshipped; traveling or travelling; traveler or traveler.
59
3) Words Ending in –y
If the –y is preceded by a consonant, change the –y to –i before any suffix except –ing.
Lady + es = Ladies Lonely + ness = Loneliness Try + ed = Tried Accompany + es = Accompanies60
Another example,
He won the game successfully.
j. Punctuation
“Punctuation can help a reader to follow the separations or links that you wish to make between sentences and parts of sentences are the
same.”61
According to Stanley et al., there are 12 types of punctuations. They are period (.), the question mark (?), the exclamation point (!), the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dash (- or – ), the parenthesis (( )), the brackets ([ ]), the ellipsis (…), the quotation mark
(“”), and the apostrophe („).62
k. Capitalization
Capitalization is to capitalize the first letter of a word. In English there are many rules for using capital letters. Notice the following table:
Table 2.5
Capitalization Rules63
No. Rule Example
1. The first word in a sentence My best friend is my dog.
2. The Pronoun I He and I never argue.
3. Abbreviations and acronyms formed from the first letters of words
USA, IBM, AIDS.
4. All proper nouns. God, New York City, Asian, etc.
60
Langdon Elsbree and Frederick Bracher, Heath’s College Handbook of Composition, (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1967), pp. 493—496.
61
Ibid., p. 458.
62 Ibid., pp. 458—474. 63
l. Article
The articles are a, an and the. They modify noun. A and a are indefinite; a car could mean any car. The is indefinite: the car indicates a specific car. The article a precedes nouns that start with a consonant sound (a rocket). The article an precedes noun that start with a vowel sound (an astronaut).64
m. Meaning Not Clear
Meaning not clear happens when a sentence or utterance is not interpretable, for example: He borrowed some smoke. (See table 2.6)
n. Run-On Sentence
A run-on is two complete thoughts that are run together with no adequate sign given to mark the break between them. Some run-ons have no punctuation at all to mark the break between the thoughts. Such run-ons are known as fused sentences: they are fused, or joined together, as if they were only one thought.65
It means that run-on sentence is two simple sentence joined together without a comma and without a connecting word.
The example of error sentences based on the type of errors above as follows:
Table 2.6
The types of Error based on Betty Schampfer Azar66
No. Types of Error Example
1. Singular-plural Incorrect: He have been here for six month.
Correct : He has been here for six months.
2. Word form Incorrect: I saw a beauty picture. Correct : I saw a beautiful picture.
64
Stanley, Op. Cit., pp. 431—432.
65
John Langan, College Writing Skill with Readings 5th Edition, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001), p. 432.
66
3. Word choice Incorrect: She got on the taxi.
Correct : She got into the taxi.
4. Verb tense Incorrect: He is here since June.
Correct : He has been here since June.
5. + Add a word Incorrect: I want ^ go to the zoo.
Correct : I want to go to the zoo.
6. Omit a word Incorrect: She entered to the university. Correct : She entered the university.
7. Word Order Incorrect: I saw five times that movie.
Correct : I saw that movie five times.
8. Incomplete Sentence Incorrect: I went to bed. Because I was tired.
Correct : I went to bed because I was tired.
9. Spelling Incorrect: An accident occured. Correct : An accident occurred.
10. Punctuation Incorrect: What did he say.
Correct : What did he say?
11. Capitalization Incorrect: I am studying english. Correct : I am studying English.
12. Article Incorrect: I had a accident.
Correct : I had an accident.
13. Meaning Not Clear Incorrect: He borrowed some smoke. ???
14. Run-on Sentence
Incorrect: My roommate was sleeping, we didn’t
want to wake her up.
Correct : My roommate was sleeping. We didn’t want to wake her up.
6. The Procedure of Error Analysis
It needs some steps or stages of procedure in conducting Error Analysis. Theo Van Els, et al., states that there are some procedures in Error Analysis, namely:
a. Identification of errors. The first step in the process of analysis is recognition/identification of errors. In this step, teachers recognize the students’ errors from the task given by the teachers.
b. Description of errors. The next step is describing errors; it begins when an identification stage has taken place. The description of student errors involves classification of kinds of errors made by the students. c. Explanation of errors. The third step in the process of analysis is the
explanation of error that can be regarded as a linguistic problem. This step attempts to account for how and why the students’ errors occur. d. Evaluation of errors. In this step, the teacher gives evaluation from the
task done by the students depends on the task that the teacher will be giving to the students.
e. Preventing/correcting of errors. The last step is correction of errors; the teacher checks the errors and then gives the correct one. It is done to make the students realize with their errors in order to prevent the students make the same errors later.67
Carl James in his book “Error in Language Learning and Use: Exploring
Error Analysis” explains that there are five procedures in identification of errors:
a. Error detection. It’s a stage which the errors are detected, so the researcher becomes aware of its presence.
b. Locating error. The researcher locates the errors, but error location is not always so straightforward. Not all errors are easily localizable in this way. Some are diffused throughout the sentence or larger unit of the text that contains.
67
c. Describing error. The grammar used for describing them must be the most comprehensive we have, and the one capable of maximum „delicacy’ of descriptive detail.
d. Classifying error. The errors are classified based on the errors classification.
e. Counting error. The last stage is counting error that the researcher counts the errors made by learner.68
Gass and Selinker state that the great deal of the work on Error Analysis was carried out within the context of classroom. Therefore, there are a number of steps taken to conduct error analysis.
a. Collect data. Although this typically done with written data, oral data can also serve as a base.
b. Identify errors. What is the error (e.g., incorrect sequence of tenses, wrong verb form, singular verb form with plural subject)?
c. Classify errors. Is it an error of agreement? Or is it an error in irregular verbs?
d. Quantify errors. How many errors of agreement occur? How many irregular verb forms of errors occur?
e. Analyze source. See later discussion.
f. Remediate. Based on the kind and frequency of an error type, pedagogical intervention is carried out.69
According to Corder in Ellis and Barkhuizen the procedure of Error Analysis includes the following steps:
a. Collecting a sample of learner language. Collecting a sample of learner language provides the data for the EA. The researcher needs to be aware that the nature of the sample that is collected may influence the nature and distribution of the errors observed.
b. Identification of Errors. The identification of errors involves a comparison between what the learner has produced and what a native speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. The basic produce is as follow:
1. Prepare a reconstruction of the sample as this would have been
produced by the learner’s native speaker counterpart.
68 Carl James, Op. Cit., pp. 91—114. 69
2. Assume that every utterance/sentence produced by the learner is erroneous and systematically eliminate those that an initial comparison with the native speaker sample shows to be well-formed. Those utterances/sentences remaining contain errors. 3. Identify which parts of each learner utterance/sentence differs
from the reconstructed version.
c. Description of Errors. The Description of errors is essentially a comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the reconstructed utterance. Thus, description of learner errors involves specifying how the forms produced by the learner differ from
those produced by the learner’s native-speaker counterparts.
d. Explanation of Errors. Explaining errors involves determining their sources in order to account for why they were made. From the point of view of SLA research this is the most important stage in an EA.
e. Error Evaluation. It involves determining the gravity of different errors with a view to deciding which ones should receive instruction.70
Based on the detail explanation of the procedure of EA above it can be summed up that actually in the procedure of EA has the same stages to conduct, firstly is collecting the data, next the data is identified to find the errors made by students, thirdly the researcher describers the error based on the error classifications and then she/he explains the sources the students’ error and the last stage the errors are counted to get the total of errors made by students as evaluation. In her study, the writer chooses the procedure of EA which identified by Corder cited in Ellis and Barkhuizen to conduct the research.
8. The Goal of Error Analysis
Some experts reveal their opinions of the goal of EA. According to Norrish, “Error Analysis can give a picture of the type of difficulty learners are experiencing. If carried out on a large scale such a survey, it can be helpful in
drawing up a curriculum.”71
It means that EA has significant to check the
students’ difficulty in learning. Then the teacher can rearrange the curriculum that
70 Ellis and Barkhuizen, Op. Cit., p. 57—67. 71
suits for the students. While Corder has parallel opinion with Norrish, he divides the significant of EA in three aspects:
1) The teacher. EA gives information of the learners’ progress in acquiring the language, and it tells him what remain for him to teach. 2) The researcher. EA give evidence to the research of how the learner
learn and acquire the language, what strategies or procedures they use in discovering the language.
3) The learner. Making error can be used for the learner as device to learn.72
He further explains that EA as branch of applied linguistic activity has two functions, they are: theoretical and practical.
a. The theoretical aspect of error analysis is part of the methodology of investigating the language learning process.
b. The practical aspect of error analysis is its function in guiding the remedial action we must take to correct an unsatisfactory state of affairs for learner or teacher.73
Based on the explanation above, the writer sums up that the goal of EA in theoretical aspect is as a tool to investigate the language learning process and it also gives information of the learners’ progress in the process of acquiring language in the practical area. It can be a very useful feedback for the teacher, the researcher, the learner and the curriculum in how to overcome the students’ difficulty and how to deal against the error.
B.
Writing
1. The Understanding of Writing
Writing has a significant function as a medium of communication to express our ideas, to share knowledge and to exchange information. As Ann
72
Jack C. Richards (ed), Error Analysis: Perspective on Second Language Acquisition, (London: Longman, 1973), p. 25.
73
Brown states that “Writing is important in our lives and as a communicative act that transmit information and link people together”.74 Related to the opinion, Raymond points out that, “Writing is more than a medium of communication. It is a way of remembering and a way of thinking as well. Write makes words permanent, and thus expands the collective memory of human beings from the relatively small store that we can remember and pass on orally to the infinite
capacity of a modern library”.75
It can be summed up that writing develops human’s lives by informing the knowledge and the idea. People can forget spoken information in second but writing makes it permanent.
Writing skill for foreign learners is the most challenging activity because it is a complex skill that involves knowledge, concepts and writing’s rules. Moreover, for second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learners, the difficulty in writing does not only lie in creating and organizing ideas but also translating the ideas into readable writing, Richards and Renandya explain that:
There is no doubt that writing is the most difficult skill for L2 learners to master. The difficulty lies not only in generating and organizing ideas, but also in translating these ideas into readable text. The skills involved in writing are highly complex. L2 writers have to pay attention to higher level skills of planning and organizing as well as lower level skill of spelling, punctuation, word choice, and so on.76
Celce-Murcia and Olshtain give their idea about writing that:
Writing is the production of the written word that results in a text but the text must be read and comprehended in order for communication to take place. The writer, in order words, communicates his/her ideas in the form of a written text from which known or unknown reader will eventually extract the ideas and their meanings.77
74Ann Brown, Helping Children’s Write, (New York: Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.,
1993), p. 2.
75
James C. Raymond, Writing: Is an Unnatural Act, (New York: Harper & Row Publisher Inc., 1980), p. 2.
76
Jack C. Richards and Willy A. Renandya, Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002) p. 303.
77
In means that writing is a hard skill for foreign learners because the learners don’t only concentrate in communicating and composing the idea into
comprehended writing but also must pay attention to the writing’s rule.
English teacher can use writing as a means of learning or evidence of successful learning. A good writing reflects a plenty of practicing because it needs processes of thinking and then evaluating and revising it. White highlights that “Writing can be viewed as involving a number of thinking process which is drawn upon in varied and complex ways as an individual composes, transcribes, evaluates, and revises”.78 Richards hints that “Writing is used either as evidence of successful learning or as a means of learning”.79 It can be summed up that writing can be as a tool for learning feedback.
It can be concluded that through writing many information and knowledge can be shared, therefore writing can develop human’s life. While, writing in the sense of learning English is a challenging activity for foreign language learners because the FL learners not only have to interpret the idea into comprehended text but also they have to pay attention to the writing’s rules. However, writing reflects the FL learners competency because it can be such a tool that gives feedback in the learning process.
2. The Purpose of Writing
There are some purposes of writing that many experts have explained, according to Penny Ur the “The purpose of writing, in principle, is the expression
of ideas, the conveying of a message to the reader.”80
Diestch states that “The general purpose of writing may be primary to inform, to persuade, to express and to entertain. The specific purpose involves responding to a certain need for
78
Ronald V. White, New Ways in Teaching Writing, (Bloomington, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc., 1995) p. 15.
79
Jack C. Richards, The Language Teaching Matrix, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 100.
80
